Contraceptive practice of Irish married and single first-time mothers

This study surveys 100 married and 100 unmarried primiparous mothers, attending the National Maternity Hospital, Dublin, with regard to their contraceptive practice, their planning of their pregnancy and the timing of their first antenatal visit. Nineteen per cent of the married women, but 64% of the unmarried women, had never used any contraceptive method. The contraceptive pill was the most popular method for both groups, but while three in five of the married women had at some time used the pill, only a little more than one in five of the unmarried women had ever used it. One quarter of the women who had used contraception reported that their pregnancy was the result of a failure in their contraceptive method. Eighty-nine per cent of the single group and 20% of the married had not planned their pregnancy. None of the married women, but almost a quarter of the single, delayed their first antenatal visit until after they were 20 weeks pregnant.     

Pregnancy outcome is associated with maternal marital status in Austria--even at the beginning of the 21st century

Human reproduction is a biological phenomenon, however, sociocultural factors such as marital status influence pregnancy outcome and reproductive success. In the present study the impact of maternal marital status on pregnancy outcome was tested for all births, which had taken place in Austria between 1999 and 2004, which met the following criteria: single births, nulliparity, mothers older than 19 years (n = 179 830). The rate of preterm delivery (< 37 beginning weeks of gestation) and rate of low birth weight (< 2500 g) among term births were significantly higher among unmarried mothers in comparison to married mothers. Additionally the newborns of unmarried mothers were significantly lighter and shorter than those of married mothers. This was especially true of immigrant mothers. No significant differences between married and unmarried mothers were found regarding mode of delivery. Even at the beginning of the 21st century unmarried status represents an important stress factor for pregnant women.     

The effect of marriage on utilization of colorectal endoscopy exam in the United States

Purpose: This study examines the association between marriage and colorectal endoscopy exam, and whether this association varies by gender and financial benefits of marriage including improved access to health insurance and pooled family income. Methods: Representative survey data of the non-institutionalized United States population were used from the 2000, 2005, and 2008 National Health Interview Survey. Analyses targeted persons 50-85 years of age without a personal history of cancer and with complete information on all study variables (n=21,760). Multivariate logistic regression was used to model marital status differences in the probability of undergoing a colorectal endoscopy exam with interaction effects used to model variation over time by gender, health insurance, and poverty level. Results: Married persons were more likely than unmarried persons to report ever having undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam (odds ratio [OR], 1.21; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-1.29), and the difference between married and unmarried persons in the probability of undergoing a colorectal endoscopy exam remained stable over time. Married persons were more likely than unmarried persons to report having undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam within the past 10 years (OR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.15-1.95). For each survey year, married men were significantly more likely than women and unmarried men to report having undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam. For example, in 2008, 56% of married men reported having undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam, compared to 49% of unmarried men, 52% of married women, and 50% of unmarried women. Among persons with health insurance, married persons were significantly more likely than unmarried persons to have undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam. Among persons who were poor, there was no difference by marital status in the likelihood of having undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam. However, among persons who were not poor, married persons were more likely than unmarried persons to have undergone a colorectal endoscopy exam. Conclusion: Given that colorectal endoscopy exams are a potentially life-saving procedure, persistently higher uptake of colorectal endoscopy for married persons over time may be an important health promoting benefit of marriage. Therefore, clinicians and policy makers should focus on improving the use of cancer prevention services among unmarried persons.     

EBV seroepidemiology in married and unmarried women and men in Iran

Background:

Among the eight known human herpes viruses, Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) is considered to be sexually transmissible. This study was conducted to evaluate the seroepidemiology of this infection in married and unmarried Iranian couples.

Methods:

In this comparative observational and cross-sectional study, 160 men and women were divided into married and unmarried groups. Serum IgG and IgM antibodies to the EBV viral capsid antigen were analyzed by Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs).

Results:

In this study 78 men and 82 women were enrolled. Ninety percent of the married and 76.2% of the unmarried women were anti-EBV IgG positive (P = 0.08), while 80% of the married and 94% of the unmarried men were antiEBV IgG positive (P = 0.052).

Conclusion:

Seroepidemiology of EBV is not significantly different in married vs. unmarried women and men in Iran; therefore, sexual contact may not be the primary mechanism of EBV transmission in Iran and other developing countries. Attention to other possible routes of transmission is recommended. Key Words: Epstein Barr Virus, Sexual contact, Anti-VCA     

Why is the number of pregnancies among teenagers decreasing?

The issue of pregnancy among adolescent women has received considerable attention from the media. Contrary to common belief, both the numbers and the rates of such pregnancies, even when data on abortion are included, have been declining. Patterns of contraception may account for some of the decrease; however, more study is required. In the past, unmarried teenagers who became pregnant either got married or put the baby up for adoption. Now they can either have an abortion or keep the baby. Solutions to the problems of pregnancy among teenagers must therefore be addressed to these altered social consequences rather than to misleading comments about "epidemics", with their suggestion of increased rates of pregnancy.     

Ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis

We tested 98 asymptomatic women seen in state-funded contraception clinics in rural New Mexico. A fluorescein-conjugated monoclonal antibody stain revealed Chlamydia trachomatis infection in 25% of asymptomatic unmarried women and 3% of married women (P = .03). Neisseria gonorrhoeae was detected in only one woman. As in urban clinics providing contraception, the prevalence of gonorrhea is rare in rural New Mexico, but chlamydial infections are common in young unmarried women.     

Relationships in Canada between mortality from tumours of the gastrointestinal tract and marital status.

The mortality from tumours of the gastrointestinal tract in the Canadian population in 1970-72 was 16% higher in single than in married men (on the basis of age-adjusted rates), 25% higher in widowed men and 28% higher in divorced men. All these differences were unlikely to be due to chance. The rates were 4% higher for single women, 14% higher for widows and 22% higher for divorced women, compared with the married. The differences for single and divorced women were not significant. Substantial excess mortality was found in the unmarried for tumours of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, and rectum; for tumours of the stomach and colon the excess was small or nonexistent. This variation between sites suggests that systematic errors in the census data used as denominators are not responsible for the high mortality for the unmarried from certain tumours. The effect is found in conditions for which treatment can have made little difference (e.g., a 75% excess mortality for tumours of the esophagus in single men compared with married) and in conditions for which differences in the use of medical facilities may have been important (e.g., a 44% excess mortality for tumours of the rectum in widowers).     

A study of contraception as related to unwanted pregnancy

A study was made of 150 women requesting therapeutic abortion. Mechanical failure of the contraceptive method used accounted for unwanted pregnancy in 89 (59%) women. In the remainder no method of contraception was used by either partner. Among women requesting abortion, failure to use contraceptives was commoner in the younger and unmarried than in older and married women.The data obtained were analyzed in an attempt to explain the failure and avoidance of contraception. Suggestions are made as to how to discourage the use of abortion as a method of contraception.     

Secular trends in self reported sexual activity and satisfaction in Swedish 70 year olds: cross sectional survey of four populations, 1971-2001

Objective To study secular trends in self reported sexual behaviour among 70 year olds.Design Cross sectional survey.Settings Four samples representative of the general population in Gothenburg, Sweden.Participants 1506 adults (946 women, 560 men) examined in 1971-2, 1976-7, 1992-3, and 2000-1.Main outcome measures Sexual intercourse, attitudes to sexuality in later life, sexual dysfunctions, and marital satisfaction.Results From 1971 to 2000 the proportion of 70 year olds reporting sexual intercourse increased among all groups: married men from 52% to 68% (P=0.002), married women from 38% to 56% (P=0.001), unmarried men from 30% to 54% (P=0.016), and unmarried women from 0.8% to 12% (P<0.001). Men and women from later birth cohorts reported higher satisfaction with sexuality, fewer sexual dysfunctions, and more positive attitudes to sexuality in later life than those from earlier birth cohorts. A larger proportion of men (57% v 40%, P<0.001) and women (52% v 35%, P<0.001) reported very happy relationships in 2000-1 compared with those in 1971-2. Sexual debut before age 20 increased in both sexes: in men from 52% to 77% (P<0.001) and in women from 19% to 64% (P<0.001).Conclusion Self reported quantity and quality of sexual experiences among Swedish 70 year olds has improved over a 30 year period.     

Sociodemographic attributes of Iranian wives who reported unwanted pregnancies

In a 1989 Family Planning Study in Iran, 40 percent of the married women of reproductive age reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted and unintended. This finding is consistent with the results obtained from a number of studies undertaken in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East. Although the phenomenon of unwanted pregnancy is a significant topic in the population studies, it has received very little attention. This paper shows the differences between two groups: group A, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were wanted, and group B, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted. The findings of this study clearly show significant differences between these two groups in regard to some key sociodemographic attributes: wife/husband's education, actual and desired fertility, wife's current age, past and present practice of contraceptive methods, and extent of satisfaction with family planning services are among the attributes differentiating these two groups. Our examination of these variables suggests that group B had higher parity, fertility, less desire for more children, less use of contraceptive techniques, and less satisfaction with the efficiency of the contraceptive techniques than group A. The relationship between education and wanted/unwanted pregnancies is mixed. The urban women who wanted pregnancies and were 25 years old or older were more educated than those who did not want pregnancies. On the contrary, the rural women whose pregnancies were not wanted were more educated than those who wanted pregnancies regardless of age, parity, and locality differences. Furthermore, the urban/rural women with different levels of parities who did not want to be pregnant were more educated than the urban/rural women who wanted pregnancies. Finally, the standardized regression coefficients, obtained in logistic regression, reveal that among urban women the desire for more children and parity are the first and second most significant independent variables differentiating between group A and group B. Among rural women, living children and the desire for more children were the first and second most important variables differentiating between group A and group B.     

Book notes

The costs and benefits of polygyny have been widely debated and vary according to local sociopolitical context, the level of female autonomy, and economic considerations such as the mode of production. This study aims to understand perceptions of polygyny as a function of household demography, particularly the number of female kin present in the household who can provide labor that is largely substitutable to that of a co-wife. The presence of these helpers is proposed to shift the cost-benefit structure of polygyny, in which having more female kin available is associated with a more negative view of the practice. Interview and census data from 106 Himba women, who are traditional, seminomadic pastoralists, were used to test this prediction. Among married women who reside patrilocally, the presence of more elder daughters was associated with a more negative view of polygyny. Among unmarried women, who reside in their natal homes, it is the total number of adult female kin that predicts perception of polygyny. In addition, unmarried women are significantly more likely to report fights over resources as a source of co-wife conflicts when they have more dependent children, but no such association was found among married women.     

Sociodemographic attributes of Iranian wives who reported unwanted pregnancies

Abstract

In a 1989 Family Planning Study in Iran, 40 percent of the married women of reproductive age reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted and unintended. This finding is consistent with the results obtained from a number of studies undertaken in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East. Although the phenomenon of unwanted pregnancy is a significant topic in the population studies, it has received very little attention. This paper shows the differences between two groups: group A, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were wanted, and group B, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted. The findings of this study clearly show significant differences between these two groups in regard to some key sociodemographic attributes: wife/husband's education, actual and desired fertility, wife's current age, past and present practice of contraceptive methods, and extent of satisfaction with family planning services are among the attributes differentiating these two groups. Our examination of these variables suggests that group B had higher parity, fertility, less desire for more children, less use of contraceptive techniques, and less satisfaction with the efficiency of the contraceptive techniques than group A. The relationship between education and wanted/unwanted pregnancies is mixed. The urban women who wanted‐pregnancies and were 25 years old or older were more educated than those who did not want pregnancies. On the contrary, the rural women whose pregnancies were not wanted were more educated than those who wanted pregnancies regardless of age, parity, and locality differences. Furthermore, the urban/rural women with different levels of parities who did not want to be pregnant were more educated than the urban/rural women who wanted pregnancies. Finally, the standardized regression coefficients, obtained in logistic regression, reveal that among urban women the desire for more children and parity are the first and second most significant independent variables differentiating between group A and group B. Among rural women, living children and the desire for more children were the first and second most important variables differentiating between group A and group B.     

Paternity Acknowledgment in 2 Million Birth Records from Michigan

Out-of-wedlock childbearing is more common in the U.S. than in other countries and becoming more so. A growing share of such non-marital births identify the father, which can create a legal entitlement to child support. Relatively little is known about individual determinants of the decision to establish paternity, in part because of data limitations. In this paper, we evaluate all birth records in Michigan from 1993 to 2006, which have been merged to the paternity registry. In 2006, 30,231 Michigan children, almost one quarter of all Michigan births, were born to unmarried mothers and had paternity acknowledged. We find that births with paternity acknowledged have worse outcomes along various health and socio-economic dimensions relative to births to married parents, but better outcomes relative to births to unmarried parents without paternity acknowledgement. Furthermore, unmarried men who father sons are significantly more likely to acknowledge paternity than fathers of daughters.     

Gender,Ethnicity, Marital Status,and Body Weight in the United States

Married individuals tend to be heavier than those who are unmarried, particularly men, and individuals in different ethnic categories vary in their involvement in marriage and in their body weights. We examined gender and ethnic differences in relationships between marital status and body weight using cross‐sectional data from the 1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) for 3,947 women and 4,019 men. The findings revealed that compared to married men in the same ethnic category, white divorced men, black never‐married men, and all Hispanic men except for widows had lower odds of being overweight. Compared to married women in the same ethnic category, white women's weights did not significantly differ by marital status, black separated women had greater odds of being overweight, and Hispanic never‐married women had lower odds of being overweight. Associations of marriage with body weight appear to be at least partly contingent upon gender and ethnicity, which may reflect larger societal patterns of involvement in marriage, commitment to family, and body‐weight norms and expectations.     

Recent trends in rates of sexual activity in sub-Saharan Africa

Over the past five to ten years, the proportion of women who report recent sexual activity has declined in twelve countries in southern and eastern Africa, but not in most of eleven countries in West Africa. Although concentrated among unmarried women, slight declines are evident among married women and across most ages. Although it is difficult to prove, the most likely explanation is the higher prevalence of HIV/AIDS in southern and eastern Africa.     

Nonmarital Fertility, Family Structure, and the Early School Achievement of Young Children from Different Race/Ethnic and Immigration Groups

Working from a life course perspective, this study examined the links between mothers' fertility and relationship statuses and children's early school achievement and how these links varied by race/ethnicity and immigration status. Analyses of nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort revealed that children born to unmarried women scored lower than children of married women on math tests in kindergarten and first grade. This pattern was most attributable to associated differences in family income and parent education, and it was moderated by women's marital and relationship statuses after having their children. Evidence also suggested that the academic risks of some family structure pattern relative to continuously married parents might have been more pronounced for White children.     

Female Mobility and Postmarital Kin Access in a Patrilocal Society

Across a wide variety of cultural settings, kin have been shown to play an important role in promoting women’s reproductive success. Patrilocal postmarital residence is a potential hindrance to maintaining these support networks, raising the question: how do women preserve and foster relationships with their natal kin when propinquity is disrupted? Using census and interview data from the Himba, a group of semi-nomadic African pastoralists, I first show that although women have reduced kin propinquity after marriage, more than half of married women are visiting with their kin at a given time. Mobility recall data further show that married women travel more than unmarried women, and that women consistently return to stay with kin around the time of giving birth. Divorce and death of a spouse also trigger a return to living with kin, leading to a cumulative pattern of kin coresidence across the lifespan. These data suggest that patrilocality may be less of a constraint on female kin support than has been previously assumed.     

Marriage and fatherhood are associated with lower testosterone in males

In order to study the hormonal correlates of the tradeoff between mating and parenting effort in human males, we examined the salivary testosterone (T) levels of 58 Boston-area men who were either unmarried (n=29), married without children (n=14), or married with children (n=15). Additionally, we asked participants to complete a questionnaire that surveyed their demographic, marital, and parenting backgrounds. We tested the hypotheses that (1) T levels will be lower in married than in unmarried men and (2) married men with children will have lower T levels than unmarried men and married men without children. We also tested a series of hypotheses relating variation in parenting and spousal relationships to T. We found that married men with and without children had significantly lower evening T than unmarried men. No significant differences in T were found among the groups in morning samples. Among married men without children, higher scores on a “spousal investment” measure and more hours spent with a man's wife on his last day off work were both associated with lower T levels. We suggest that lower T levels during the day among fathers may facilitate paternal care in humans by decreasing the likelihood that a father will engage in competitive and/or mating behavior.     

Assessing long term backache after childbirth.

OBJECTIVES--To investigate the factors associated with long term backache after childbirth, to assess all women reporting new onset long term backache, and to investigate any relation with pain relief in labour. DESIGN--Data collected from obstetric records and postal questionnaires or telephone interviews on morbidity after childbirth from all women delivering their first baby between March 1990 and February 1991, followed by analysis of data collected from outpatient consultations. SETTING--St Thomas''s Hospital, London. SUBJECTS--Questionnaires were sent to 1615 women who had delivered their first baby in the defined period; 1015 either replied by post or were contacted by telephone. RESULTS--299 women (29.5% of responders) reported backache lasting more than six months and of these 156 (15.4%) said they had had no back problems previously. Those women who had received epidural analgesia in labour were significantly more likely to report new onset backache (17.8%; 95% confidence interval 14.8% to 20.8%) than those who did not (11.7%; 8.6% to 14.8%). Younger women, unmarried women, and those reporting other antenatal symptoms were significantly more likely to report new long term backache. The 156 women reporting new backache were asked to attend an outpatient clinic and 36 (23%) did so. The majority had a postural backache which was not severe. Psychological factors were present in 14 women. CONCLUSIONS--Though new long term backache is reported more commonly after epidural analgesia in labour, it tends to be postural and not severe. There were no differences in the nature of the backache between those who had or had not received epidural analgesia in labour.     

Pet companionship and depression: Results from a United States Internet sample

Abstract

Using Internet survey data from 2,291 respondents from the United States, we examined socio-demographic predictors of living with a cat or dog. Logistic regressions showed that, for men, being married, living with children, being Midwestern and non-urban increased odds of living with a pet. For women, being White, having a high income, living with children, and living in a rural setting increased odds for pet ownership. Multivariate analyses examining influences of gender, marital status, and pet ownership on depression (CES-D) scores, adjusting for potential confounders, revealed that unmarried women who live with a pet have the fewest depressive symptoms, and unmarried men who live with a pet have the most. These findings suggest that single women benefit from pet companionship, whereas single men may be burdened by it.