Dorsal fin in the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias: a dynamic stabilizer for fast swimming

Transverse sections of the skin in the dorsal fin of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, and spotted raggedtooth shark, Carcharias taurus, show large numbers of dermal fiber bundles, which extend from the body into the fin. The bundles are tightly grouped together in staggered formation (not arranged in a straight line or in rows). This arrangement of dermal fibers gives tensile strength without impeding fiber movement. Tangential sections indicate that the fibers in all three species are strained and lie at angles in excess of 60 degrees . Of the three species investigated the dermal fibers in C. carcharias are the most densely concentrated and extend furthest distally along the dorsal fin. The overall results indicate that the dorsal fin of C. carcharias functions as a dynamic stabilizer and that the dermal fibers are crucial to this role. The fibers work like riggings that stabilize a ship's mast. During fast swimming, when the problems of yaw and roll are greatest, hydrostatic pressure within the shark increases and the fibers around the body, including in the dorsal fin, become taut, thereby stiffening the fin. During slow swimming and feeding the hydrostatic pressure is reduced, the fibers are slackened, and the muscles are able to exert greater bending forces on the fin via the radials and ceratotrichia. In C. carcharias there is a trade-off for greater stiffness of the dorsal fin against flexibility.     

A first estimate of white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, abundance off Central California

The decline of sharks in the global oceans underscores the need for careful assessment and monitoring of remaining populations. The northeastern Pacific is the home range for a genetically distinct clade of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Little is known about the conservation status of this demographically isolated population, concentrated seasonally at two discrete aggregation sites: Central California (CCA) and Guadalupe Island, Mexico. We used photo-identification of dorsal fins in a sequential Bayesian mark-recapture algorithm to estimate white shark abundance off CCA. We collected 321 photographs identifying 130 unique individuals, and estimated the abundance off CCA to be 219 mature and sub-adult individuals ((130, 275) 95% credible intervals), substantially smaller than populations of other large marine predators. Our methods can be readily expanded to estimate shark population abundance at other locations, and over time, to monitor the status, population trends and protection needs of these globally distributed predators.     

Development of microsatellite markers in Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook, an endangered Chinese endemic herb

As an endangered endemic herb, Dendrobium fimbriatum, is under threat from numerous impacts. In order to analyse the genetic diversity and structure of this endangered species, we provide details of 10 microsatellite loci (out of 15 primer pairs designed) which showed polymorphic for D. fimbriatum. These loci were used to screen 25 individuals from across the species' geographical range. Ten loci were polymorphic with 2 to 19 alleles; three loci were monomorphic, while the rest produced no amplification fragments. These loci will be used to investigate population genetic structure, genetic diversity, conservation, and individual authentication in the endangered D. fimbriatum.     

Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA reveals isolation of imperilled grey nurse shark populations (Carcharias taurus)

Loss of sharks and other upper-trophic marine predators has sparked worldwide concern for the stability of ocean ecosystems. The grey nurse (ragged-tooth or sand tiger) shark ( Carcharias taurus ) is Vulnerable on a global scale, Critically Endangered in Australia and presumed extinct in parts of its historical range. We used 193 muscle and fin samples collected from six extant populations to assess global mtDNA and microsatellite diversity and the degree of global population genetic structure. Control region mtDNA diversity was low in every population, and two populations (eastern Australia and Japan) contained only a single mtDNA haplotype. Genetic signatures of recent losses of genetic variation were not yet apparent at microsatellite loci, indicating that this low mtDNA variation is not a result of anthropogenic population declines. Population differentiation was substantial between each population pair except Brazil and South Africa, F _ST values ranged from 0.050 to 0.699 and 0.100 to 1.00 for microsatellite and mitochondrial data respectively. Bayesian analysis clearly partitioned individuals into five of the populations from which they were sampled. Our data imply a low frequency of immigrant exchange among each of these regions and we suggest that each be recognized as a distinct evolutionary significant unit. In contrast to pelagic species such as whale shark and white shark that may cross ocean basins and where cooperative international efforts are necessary for conservation, grey nurse shark, like many coastal species, need to be managed regionally.     

气候速度影响下中国周边海域鲨鱼保护优先区识别

鲨鱼在气候变化和人类活动等因素的影响下面临着种群衰退的风险,开展鲨鱼保护优先区研究是鲨鱼保护行动的重要工作.将气候速度引入鲨鱼保护优先区的识别过程,旨在阐明中国周边海域鲨鱼现状保护成效和保护空缺,并预测气候速度影响下的鲨鱼保护优先区空间格局及其变化趋势.以集成物种分布模型模拟的146种鲨鱼栖息地作为保护对象,以2015年至2100年两种气候变化情景下的气候速度作为保护的机会成本,基于系统保护规划理论模拟现状和未来情景下的鲨鱼保护优先区选址方案.研究结果表明：（1）长江口以南至台湾海峡和北部湾近岸海域为鲨鱼多样性分布的主要区域,台湾海峡区域亦为珍稀濒危物种的重要分布区;（2）在两种气候情景下,南海中南部将面临较高的气候变化风险,而长江口以南至珠江口的近岸海域气候速度均相对较低,提示了这些区域或能成为气候变化影响下的生物避难所;（3）现有保护区仅保护了1.33%的海域和不到4%的鲨鱼物种,尚存在较大的保护空缺.当保护海域比例提升至10%时,可覆盖绝大多数鲨鱼物种.而当比例提升至30%时,珍稀濒危物种的栖息地将得到有效保护;（4）气候变化影响下保护优先区选址将发生不同程度的变化,尤其是在中国南海区域,如在保护规划时兼顾气候速度,可在满足相似保护目标的前提下减少保护优先区内25%以上的气候压力,以使其具有较强的应对气候变化潜力。     

Predominance of genetic monogamy by females in a hammerhead shark, Sphyrna tiburo: implications for shark conservation

There is growing interest in the mating systems of sharks and their relatives (Class Chondrichthyes) because these ancient fishes occupy a key position in vertebrate phylogeny and are increasingly in need of conservation due to widespread overexploitation. Based on precious few genetic and field observational studies, current speculation is that polyandrous mating strategies and multiple paternity may be common in sharks as they are in most other vertebrates. Here, we test this hypothesis by examining the genetic mating system of the bonnethead shark, Sphyrna tiburo, using microsatellite DNA profiling of 22 litters (22 mothers, 188 embryos genotyped at four polymorphic loci) obtained from multiple locations along the west coast of Florida. Contrary to expectations based on the ability of female S. tiburo to store sperm, the social nature of this species and the 100% multiple paternity observed in two other coastal shark species, over 81% of sampled bonnethead females produced litters sired by a single male (i.e. genetic monogamy). When multiple paternity occurred in S. tiburo, there was an indication of increased incidence in larger mothers with bigger litters. Our data suggest that sharks may exhibit complex genetic mating systems with a high degree of interspecific variability, and as a result some species may be more susceptible to loss of genetic variation in the face of escalating fishing pressure. Based on these findings, we suggest that knowledge of elasmobranch mating systems should be an important component of conservation and management programmes for these heavily exploited species.     

Isolation and genetic diversity of endangered grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus) populations

Anthropogenic impacts are believed to be the primary threats to the eastern Australian population of grey nurse sharks (Carcharias taurus), which is listed as critically endangered, and the most threatened population globally. Analyses of 235 polymorphic amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) loci and 700 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA control region provide the first account of genetic variation and geographical partitioning (east and west coasts of Australia, South Africa) in C. taurus. Assignment tests, analysis of relatedness and Fst values all indicate that the Australian populations are isolated from South Africa, with negligible migration between the east and west Australian coasts. There are significant differences in levels of genetic variation among regions. Australian C. taurus, particularly the eastern population, has significantly less AFLP variation than the other sampling localities. Further, the eastern Australian sharks possess only a single mitochondrial haplotype, also suggesting a small number of founding individuals. Therefore, historical, rather than anthropogenic processes most likely account for their depauperate genetic variation. These findings have implications for the viability of the eastern Australian population of grey nurse sharks.     

The importance of considering genetic diversity in shark and ray conservation policies

Many populations of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) are experiencing severe declines due to the high demand for shark fins in Asia, the activities of unregulated fisheries, and increases in shark and ray catches. Recently, the effects of the decline in the populations of marine fish species on genetic diversity have drawn increasing attention; however, only a few studies have addressed the genetic diversity of shark and ray populations. Here, we report the results of a quantitative analysis of the genetic diversity of shark and ray species over the past 20 years and discuss the importance and utility of this genetic information for fisheries management and conservation policies. Furthermore, we suggest future actions important for minimizing the gaps in our current knowledge of the genetic diversity of shark and ray species and to minimize the information gap between genetic scientists and policymakers. We suggest that shark and ray fisheries management and conservation policies consider genetic diversity information, such as the management unit, effective population size (Ne), haplotype and nucleotide diversity, observed heterozygosity, and allelic richness, because the long-term survival of a species is strongly dependent on the levels of genetic diversity within and between populations. In addition, sharks and rays are a group of particular interest for genetic conservation due to their remarkable life histories.     

Antipodean white sharks on a Mediterranean walkabout? Historical dispersal leads to genetic discontinuity and an endangered anomalous population

The provenance of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in the Mediterranean is both a conundrum and an important conservation issue. Considering this species's propensity for natal philopatry, any evidence that the Mediterranean stock has little or no contemporary immigration from the Atlantic would suggest that it is extraordinarily vulnerable. To address this issue we sequenced the mitochondrial control region of four rare Mediterranean white sharks. Unexpectedly, the juvenile sequences were identical although collected at different locations and times, showing little genetic differentiation from Indo-Pacific lineages, but strong separation from geographically closer Atlantic/western Indian Ocean haplotypes. Historical long-distance dispersal (probably a consequence of navigational error during past climatic oscillations) and potential founder effects are invoked to explain the anomalous relationships of this isolated 'sink' population, highlighting the present vulnerability of its nursery grounds.     

Relatedness and polyandry of sixgill sharks, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hexanchus griseus</Emphasis>, in an urban estuary

The bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) is a widely distributed species found in tropical and temperate waters of every ocean, yet we know relatively little about their basic biology including their life history and population structure. From 2003–2007, we collected over 300 biopsy samples from sixgills during research operations in Puget Sound, WA, USA. Genotypic data using ten polymorphic microsatellites were used to describe sixgill genetic diversity, relatedness and mating pattern. Diversity within sixgills was found to be moderate with an average observed heterozygosity of 0.45, an average expected heterozygosity of 0.61, an average of 12 alleles per locus, and an average allelic richness of eight within microsatellite loci. Our data suggests all of the sampled individuals come from one intermixing population, and we found no historical evidence of significant population bottlenecks. Many of the sharks were sampled using longline techniques with several sharks captured at the same time and place. Similarly, multiple sharks were sampled on several occasions during research events at the Seattle Aquarium. The proportion of individuals that were full- or half-siblings was high among sharks sampled at the same time and place (range 0.65–0.87). Analysis of the genetic relationship between one large female washed ashore and 71 of her near-term pups suggested a polyandrous mating system with as many as nine males contributing to her offspring. This study is the first to investigate genetic diversity, relatedness and paternity within sixgill sharks and sheds light on important conservation implications for this little known shark population.     

Phylogeography and conservation of the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) inferred from mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA

The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) is a widely distributed, large coastal shark species known to travel long distances. These characteristics, coupled with the species?? long life span and late age of maturity, would lead one to predict significant global genetic exchange among bull shark populations. By contrast, data show localized depletion in some areas of large coastal shark fisheries, indicating some geographic isolation may exist. We examined genetic variation in the control region of mitochondrial DNA and at five nuclear microsatellite loci in bull sharks sampled from the western Atlantic to investigate the degree of population subdivision. The average per sample haplotype and nucleotide diversity in the mtDNA (0.51 ± 0.26 and 0.12% ± 0.12, respectively) and expected heterozygosity (0.84) in the microsatellite loci contrast sharply in having lower and higher values (respectively) relative to many other shark species. Significant structure exists between the Brazilian and all northern populations at the mtDNA control region (pairwise ??_ST > 0.8, P < 0.001), but not at the nuclear microsatellite loci. Adjacent northern populations show weak to no genetic differentiation for both markers. These results are congruent with restricted maternal gene flow between populations caused by female site fidelity to nursery areas. We estimate the current effective population size to be around 160,000 and 221,000 individuals for the southern and northern Atlantic populations, respectively. The philopatric habits and the relatively low levels of mtDNA genetic diversity observed in bull sharks must be considered in the conservation of this species. Our results indicate that effective bull shark management strategies will require local, regional, and international attention and cooperation.     

濒危物种山红树居群遗传结构的RAPD分析

利用RAPD分子标记检测了云南省3个山红树居群的遗传多样性和居群遗传结构。10个引物共检测到54个位点, 其中多态位点11个, 占20 37%。与其他的濒危物种相比, 山红树居群内的遗传多样性很低, 居群间的遗传分化很大(78 65%)。大量经济植物的种植加上人为的破坏, 使山红树的生境遭到严重破坏, 数量大为减少, 可能导致了山红树遗传多样性的丧失、居群间较高的遗传分化。基于以上结果, 探讨了山红树进一步的迁地保护措施。     

Polymorphic microsatellite loci for the zebra shark Stegostoma fasciatum

We report on the development and characterization of 14 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the zebra shark (Stegostoma fasciatum). Five tetranucleotide and nine dinucleotide loci were polymorphic with heterozygosities ranging from 0.400 to 0.967 and from three to 22 alleles per locus. Cross‐species amplification of these zebra shark primers on four other species of orectolobid sharks was not successful.     

滇牡丹遗传多样性的ISSR分析

应用ISSR标记对中国西南地区特有植物滇牡丹(Paeonia delavayi)的遗传多样性进行了研究。从100个引物中筛选出10个用于正式扩增,在取自16个自然居群和1个迁地保护居群的511个个体中,检测到92个多态位点。在居群水平上,多态位点百分率（PPB）为44.61%,Nei′s基因多样性指数（H）和Shannon信息指数（I）分别为0.1657和0.2448。在物种水平上,多态位点百分率（PPB）为79.31%,Nei′s基因多样性指数（H）和Shannon信息指数（I）分别为0.2947和0.4355。居群间的遗传分化系数(G_ST)达0.4349。结果表明：滇牡丹遗传多样性水平较高,居群间遗传分化较大。结合以前的研究结果,对滇牡丹的现状进行评估的结果显示,滇牡丹并不濒危。     

Fine scale movements and activity areas of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in Mossel Bay, South Africa

Previous work on white sharks indicate the species show seasonally limited movement patters, at certain aggregation sites small areas may play vital roles in the life history of a large amount of the population. Acoustic telemetry was used to estimate habitat use of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, while aggregating at Mossel Bay, South Africa. Total range of all shark tracks combined accumulated 782 h and covered an area of 93.5 km² however, within this range, sharks were found to highly utilise a core habitat (50 % Kernel, K50) of just 1.05 km² over a reef system adjacent to a river mouth. Individual tracks revealed additional core habitats, some of which were previously undocumented and one adjacent to a commercial harbor. Much was found to be dependent on the size of the shark, with larger sharks (>400 cm) occupying smaller activity areas than subadult (300–399 cm) and juvenile (<300 cm) conspecifics, while Index of Reuse (IOR) and Index of Shared Space (IOSS) were both found to increase with shark size. Such results provide evidence that larger white sharks are more selective in habitat use, which indicates they have greater experience within aggregation sites. Furthermore, the focused nature of foraging means spatially restricted management strategies would offer a powerful tool to aid enforcement of current protective legislation for the white shark in similar environments of limited resources and capacity.     

岛屿植物舟山新木姜子居群遗传多样性的RAPD分析

基于随机扩增多态 DNA(RAPD)方法分析了舟山群岛濒危植物舟山新木姜子 (N eolitsea sericea) 6个居群的遗传多样性及分化程度。 10条随机引物扩增出 84个可分析位点 ,多态位点百分比 (PPL)为 3 8.10 %。经 POPOGENE分析发现 ,舟山新木姜子居群平均水平的多态位点百分比 (PPL )为 2 3 .18% ,Nei' s基因多样度 (HE)为 0 .0 793 ,Shannon信息指数 (H )为 0 .12 0 1,与其它岛屿植物比较具有中等偏低水平的遗传多样性 ;岛屿各居群间遗传分化程度较高 (Gst=0 .3 646) ;地理距离与遗传距离之间具有显著相关性 (r=0 .7697,P=96.62 % ) ,岛屿隔离效应是导致居群间遗传分化的重要因素。结合居群遗传多样性及UPGMA聚类分析 ,推测普陀山岛舟山新木姜子部分个体可能为大猫岛迁入的后裔 ,而朱家尖岛舟山新木姜子则由人为移植自普陀山岛。基于舟山新木姜子的物种保护及资源利用 ,建议加强现有自然居群的就地保护 ,促进居群自然更新 ;建立种质资源库 ,收集不同岛屿的种源进行混合繁殖 ,促进基因交流 ;选育优良品系用于海岛植被恢复及园林观赏     

Isolation and characterization of 15 microsatellite loci in the Korean goral (Nemorhaedus caudatus)

Microsatellites have been applied in a variety of fields, including conservation genetics. Species‐specific microsatellites are considered as more powerful genetic markers to generate an accurate genetic composition of a species itself. Accordingly, we characterized 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci from Korean goral, Nemorhaedus caudatus, one of the most endangered species in South Korea. The new markers should benefit future studies of the endangered species of other Asian gorals and their relatives for the study of genetic diversity and potential conservation management.     

Extremely low genetic diversity in the endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi)

Hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century, the endangered and endemic Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) exhibits low variation at all molecular markers tested to date. Here we confirm extreme paucity of genetic diversity, finding polymorphisms at only 8 of 154 microsatellite loci tested (143 novel species-specific loci, 10 loci from Antarctic seals, and 1 previously characterized locus). This screening revealed unprecedentedly low levels of allelic diversity and heterozygosity (A = 1.1, H(e) = 0.026). Subsequent analyses of 2409 Hawaiian monk seals at the 8 polymorphic loci provide evidence for a bottleneck (P = 0.002), but simulations indicate low genetic diversity (H(e) < 0.09) prior to recorded human influence. There is little indication of contemporary inbreeding (F(IS) = 0.018) or population structure (K = 1 population). Minimal genetic variation did not prevent partial recovery by the late 1950s and may not be driving the current population decline to approximately 1200 seals. Nonetheless, genotyping nearly every individual living during the past 25 years sets a new benchmark for low genetic diversity in an endangered species.     

湖北野生春兰资源遗传多样性的ISSR分析

近年来,由于过度采挖和生境片断化,湖北野生春兰(Cymbidiumgoeringii)资源正面临着灭绝的危险。本文采用ISSR分子标记技术对湖北省内的11个春兰野生居群共325个个体的遗传多样性水平及居群遗传结构进行了研究。11个引物共检测到127个位点,其中112个为多态位点,占88.19%。POPGENE分析结果表明:与其他兰科植物相比,春兰具有丰富的遗传变异(在物种水平上,He=0.2628,Ho=0.4037;在居群水平上,PPL=63.06%,He=0.1945,Ho=0.2958)。Nei's遗传多样性分析和AMOVA分析表明,各居群间产生了一定程度的遗传分化(GST=0.2440,FST=0.2207)。居群间一定程度的遗传分化可能是由生境破坏和基因流障碍(Nm=0.8828)引起。UPGMA聚类分析可知,与其他居群相比,恩施地区的5个居群,即巴东(BD)、福宝山(FBS)、宣恩(XE)、毛坝(MB)、来凤(LF)优先聚成一支,而大悟(DW)居群单独聚为一支。同时本研究也表明,虽然春兰自交亲和,但在自然界中其繁育系统还是以异交为主。鉴于春兰资源的遗传多样性现状和其相应的居群遗传结构,我们建议在遗传多样性较高的来凤(LF)、京山(JS)、大悟(DW)居群设立保护点进行就地保护;而对资源破坏最为严重的毛坝(MB)和宣恩(XE)居群要实行迁地保护。     

In the Water with White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias): Participants’ Beliefs toward Cage-diving in Australia

White shark (Carcharodon carcharias) cage-diving tourism is a controversial activity that provokes emotional and often opposing points of view. With increasing demand for shark tourism since the 1990s, the un- derlying determinants driving this growth in participation remain unclear. This paper adopts a qualitative approach to investigate beliefs underlying tourists’ choice to observe white sharks while cage-diving at the Neptune Islands, South Australia. Elicitation surveys gathered responses from a sample (n = 86) of cage-diving participants. Content analysis of the responses revealed the decision to cage-dive with white sharks is driven by factors including education and the perceived naturalness of the experience. The findings of this study indicate an opportunity for cage-dive operators to pro- vide in situ education and interpretation with potential for increased tourist satisfaction and shark conservation outcomes.