MdmX protects p53 from Mdm2-mediated degradation

The p53 tumor suppressor protein is stabilized in response to cellular stress, resulting in activation of genes responsible for either cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. The cellular pathway for releasing normal cells from p53-dependent cell cycle arrest involves the Mdm2 protein. Recently, a p53-binding protein with homology to Mdm2 was identified and called MdmX. Like Mdm2, MdmX is able to bind p53 and inhibit p53 transactivation; however, the ability of MdmX to degrade p53 has yet to be examined. We report here that MdmX is capable of associating with p53 yet is unable to facilitate nuclear export or induce p53 degradation. In addition, expression of MdmX can reverse Mdm2-targeted degradation of p53 while maintaining suppression of p53 transactivation. Using a series of MdmX deletions, we have determined that there are two distinct domains of the MdmX protein that can stabilize p53 in the presence of Mdm2. One domain requires MdmX interaction with p53 and results in the retention of both proteins within the nucleus and repression of p53 transactivation. The second domain involves the MdmX ring finger and results in stabilization of p53 and an increase in p53 transactivation. The potential basis for stabilization and increased p53 transactivation by the MdmX ring finger domain is discussed. Based on these observations, we propose that the MdmX protein may function to maintain a nuclear pool of p53 protein in undamaged cells.     

Eurycomanone induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells via up-regulation of p53

Background  

Eurycomanone is a cytotoxic compound found in Eurycoma longifolia Jack. Previous studies had noted the cytotoxic effect against various cancer cell lines. The aim of this study is to investigate the cytotoxicity against human hepato carcinoma cell in vitro and the mode of action. The cytotoxicity of eurycomanone was evaluated using MTT assay and the mode of cell death was detected by Hoechst 33258 nuclear staining and flow cytometry with Annexin-V/propidium iodide double staining. The protein expression Bax, Bcl-2, p53 and cytochrome C were studied by flow cytometry using a spesific antibody conjugated fluorescent dye to confirm the up-regulation of p53 and Bax in cancer cells.     

Proteins induced by DNA-damaging agents in cultured Drosophila cells

In Drosophila cultured cells, the effects of several DNA-damaging agents on the expression of proteins were investigated. Poly(A+) RNA prepared from both untreated cells and cells treated with DNA-damaging agents was translated in vitro. The translation products were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis. Methyl methanesulfonate, the most potent agent used, induced about 25 proteins, some new and some enhanced pre-existing proteins. Angelicin plus near UV irradiation, 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide and ethyl methanesulfonate were efficient inducers. Mitomycin C, UV irradiation and hydrogen peroxide were poor inducers, inducing only a few proteins at low levels. A tumor promoter, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, and a DNA gyrase inhibitor, nalidixic acid, also were used. In this system they were weak inducers of new proteins. Several of the new or enhanced proteins were common to several agents, but others were agent specific. The distribution of mutagen-induced proteins was compared with that of proteins induced in cells heated at 37 degrees C. Some of the proteins induced by DNA-damaging agents were found to overlap heat-shock proteins. These results suggest that there are sets of induced genes that are regulated differently.     

Taiwanin A induced cell cycle arrest and p53-dependent apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells

Taiwanin A, a lignan isolated from Taiwania cryptomerioides Hayata, has previously been reported to have cytotoxicity against human tumor cells, but the mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we examined the molecular mechanism of cell death of human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells induced by Taiwanin A. Taiwanin A has been found to induce cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase as well as caspase-3-dependent apoptosis within 24 h. We performed both in vitro turbidity assay and immunofluorescence staining of tubulin to show that Taiwanin A can inhibit microtubule assembly. Moreover, the tumor suppressor protein p53 in HepG2 cells was activated by Taiwanin A within 12 h. Inhibition of p53 by either pifithrin-alpha or by short hairpin RNA which blocks p53 expression attenuates Taiwanin A cytotoxicity. Our results demonstrate that Taiwanin A can act as a new class of microtubule damaging agent, arresting cell cycle progression at mitotic phase and inducing apoptosis through the activation of p53.     

Petroselinum sativum protects HepG2 cells from cytotoxicity and oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide

Molecular Biology Reports - A number of liver diseases are known to be caused by oxidative stress. Petroselinum sativum (P. sativum; parsley) is popular for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial,...     

Ellipticine induces apoptosis through p53-dependent pathway in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells

Ellipticine (5,11-dimethyl-6H-pyrido[4,3-b]carbazole), one of the simplest naturally occurring alkaloids, was isolated from the leaves of the evergreen tree Ochrosia elliptica Labill (Apocynaceae). Here, we reported that ellipticine inhibited the cell growth of human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 and provided molecular understanding of this effect. The XTT assay results showed that ellipticine decreased the cell viability of HepG2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and the IC50 value was 4.1 microM. Furthermore, apoptosis induction by ellipticine in HepG2 cells was verified by the appearance of DNA fragmentation and annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide (PI) staining assay. Ellipticine treatment was found to result in the upregulation of p53, Fas/APO-1 receptor and Fas ligand. Besides, ellipticine also initiated mitochondrial apoptotic pathway through regulation of Bcl-2 family proteins expression, alteration of mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsim), and activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. Taken together, ellipticine decreased the cell growth and induced apoptosis in HepG2 cell.     

Coenzyme Q2 induced p53-dependent apoptosis

Coenzyme Q functions as an electron carrier and reversibly changes to either an oxidized (CoQ), intermediate (CoQ.-), or reduced (CoQH2) form within a biomembrane. The CoQH2 form also acts as an antioxidant and prevents cell death, and thus has been successfully used as a supplement. On the other hand, the value of the CoQ/CoQH2 ratio has been shown to increase in a number of diseases, presumably due to an anti-proliferative effect involving CoQ. In the present study, we examined the effect of CoQ and its isoprenoid side chain length variants on the growth of cells having different p53 statuses. Treatment with CoQs having shorter isoprenoid chains, especially CoQ2, induced apoptosis in p53-point mutated BALL-1 cells, whereas treatment with longer isoprenoid chains did not. However, CoQ2 did not induce apoptosis in either a p53 wild-type cell line or a p53 null mutant cell line. These results indicated that the induction of apoptosis by CoQ2 was dependent on p53 protein levels. Moreover, CoQ2 induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the phosphorylation of p53. An antioxidant, l-ascorbic acid, inhibited CoQ2-induced p53 phosphorylation and further apoptotic stimuli. Overall, these results suggested that short tail CoQ induces ROS generation and further p53-dependent apoptosis.     

The promyelocytic leukemia protein protects p53 from Mdm2-mediated inhibition and degradation

The p53 protein is kept labile under normal conditions. This regulation is governed largely by its major negative regulator, Mdm2. In response to stress however, p53 accumulates and becomes activated. For this to occur, the inhibitory effects of Mdm2 have to be neutralized. Here we investigated the role of the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) in the activation of p53 in response to stress. We found that PML is critical for the accumulation of p53 in response to DNA damage under physiological conditions. PML protects p53 from Mdm2-mediated ubiquitination and degradation, and from inhibition of apoptosis. PML neutralizes the inhibitory effects of Mdm2 by prolonging the stress-induced phosphorylation of p53 on serine 20, a site of the checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2). PML recruits Chk2 and p53 into the PML nuclear bodies and enhances p53/Chk2 interaction. Our results provide a novel mechanistic explanation for the cooperation between PML and p53 in response to DNA damage.     

Mammalian DNA mismatch repair protects cells from UVB-induced DNA damage by facilitating apoptosis and p53 activation

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) is integral to the maintenance of genomic stability and more recently has been demonstrated to affect apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in response to a variety of adducts induced by exogenous agents. Comparing Msh2-null and wildtype mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), both primary and transformed, we show that Msh2 deficiency results in increased survival post-UVB, and that UVB-induced apoptosis is significantly reduced in Msh2-deficient cells. Furthermore, p53 phosphorylation at serine 15 is delayed or diminished in Msh2-deficient cells, suggesting that Msh2 may act upstream of p53 in a post-UVB apoptosis or growth arrest response pathway. Taken together, these data suggest that MMR heterodimers containing Msh2 may function as a sensor of UVB-induced DNA damage and influence the initiation of UVB-induced apoptosis, thus implicating MMR in protecting against UV-induced tumorigenesis.     

Resveratrol- induced apoptosis is mediated by p53-dependent pathway in Hep G2 cells

Resveratrol, a phytoalexin found in many plants, has been reported to possess a wide range of pharmacological properties and is one of the promising chemopreventive agents for cancer. Here, we examined the antiproliferation effect of resveratrol in two human liver cancer cell lines, Hep G2 and Hep 3B. Our results showed that resveratrol inhibited cell growth in p53-positive Hep G2 cells only. This anticancer effect was a result of cellular apoptotic death induced by resveratrol via the p53-dependent pathway. Here we demonstrated that the resveratrol-treated cells were arrested in G1 phase and were associated with the increase of p21 expression. In addition, we also illustrated that the resveratrol-treated cells had enhanced Bax expression but they were not involved in Fas/APO-1 apoptotic signal pathway. In contrast, the p53-negative Hep 3B cells treated with resveratrol did not show the antiproliferation effect neither did they show significant changes in p21 nor Fas/APO-1 levels. In summary, our study demonstrated that the resveratrol effectively inhibited cell growth and induced programmed cell death in Hepatoma cells on a molecular basis. Furthermore, these results implied that resveratrol might also be a new potent chemopreventive drug candidate for liver cancer as it played an important role to trigger p53-mediated molecules involved in the mechanism of p53-dependent apoptotic signal pathway.     

p53-dependent apoptosis induced by proteasome inhibition in mammary epithelial cells

We have examined the effects of inhibition of the 26S proteasome in a murine mammary cell line, KIM-2 cells using the peptide aldehyde inhibitor MG132. These studies have demonstrated a clear requirement for proteasome function in cell viability. Induction of apoptosis was observed following MG132 treatment in KIM-2 cells and this death was shown to be dependent on the cell actively traversing the cell cycle. KIM-2 cells were generated using a temperature sensitive T-antigen (Tag) and studies at the permissive temperature (33 degrees C) have shown that a Tag binding protein was essential for this apoptotic response. Studies in two additional cell lines, HC11, which is a mammary epithelial cell line carrying mutant p53 alleles and p53 null ES cells suggest that p53 is actively required for the apoptosis induced as a consequence of proteasome inhibition. These results suggest a pivotal role for the 26S proteasome degradation pathway in progression through the cell cycle in proliferating cells.     

p300/CBP-mediated p53 acetylation is commonly induced by p53-activating agents and inhibited by MDM2

The tumor suppressor p53 is activated in response to many types of cellular and environmental insults via mechanisms involving post-translational modification. Here we demonstrate that, unlike phosphorylation, p53 invariably undergoes acetylation in cells exposed to a variety of stress-inducing agents including hypoxia, anti-metabolites, nuclear export inhibitor and actinomycin D treatment. In vivo, p53 acetylation is mediated by the p300 and CBP acetyltransferases. Overexpression of either p300 or CBP, but not an acetyltransferase-deficient mutant, efficiently induces specific p53 acetylation. In contrast, MDM2, a negative regulator of p53, actively suppresses p300/CBP-mediated p53 acetylation in vivo and in vitro. This inhibitory activity of MDM2 on p53 acetylation is in turn abrogated by tumor suppressor p19(ARF), indicating that regulation of acetylation is a central target of the p53-MDM2-p19(ARF) feedback loop. Functionally, inhibition of deacetylation promotes p53 stability, suggesting that acetylation plays a positive role in the accumulation of p53 protein in stress response. Our results provide evidence that p300/CBP-mediated acetylation may be a universal and critical modification for p53 function.     

iASPP protects the heart from ischemia injury by inhibiting p53 expression and cardiomyocyte apoptosis

Currently, there remains a great need to elucidate the molecular mechanism of acute myocardial infarction in order to facilitate the development of novel therapy. Inhibitor of apoptosis-stimulating protein of p53 (iASPP) is a member of the ASPP family proteins and an evolutionarily preserved inhibitor of p53 that is involved in many cellular processes, including apoptosis of cancer cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possible role of iASPP in acute myocardial infarction. The protein level of iASPP was markedly reduced in the ischemic hearts in vivo and hydrogen peroxide-exposed cardiomyocytes in vitro. Overexpression of iASPP reduced the infarct size and cardiomyocyte apoptosis of mice subjected to 24 h of coronary artery ligation. Echocardiography showed that cardiac function was improved as indicated by the increase in ejection fraction and fractional shortening. In contrast, knockdown of iASPP exacerbated cardiac injury as manifested by impaired cardiac function, increased infarct size, and apoptosis rate. Mechanistically, overexpression of iASPP inhibited, while knockdown of iASPP increased the expressions of p53 and Bax, the key regulators of apoptosis. Taken together, our results suggested that iASPP is an important regulator of cardiomyocyte apoptosis, which represents a potential target in the therapy of myocardial infarction.     

SAG, a novel zinc RING finger protein that protects cells from apoptosis induced by redox agents

SAG (sensitive to apoptosis gene) was cloned as an inducible gene by 1,10-phenanthroline (OP), a redox-sensitive compound and an apoptosis inducer. SAG encodes a novel zinc RING finger protein that consists of 113 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 12.6 kDa. SAG is highly conserved during evolution, with identities of 70% between human and Caenorhabditis elegans sequences and 55% between human and yeast sequences. In human tissues, SAG is ubiquitously expressed at high levels in skeletal muscles, heart, and testis. SAG is localized in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of cells, and its gene was mapped to chromosome 3q22-24. Bacterially expressed and purified human SAG binds to zinc and copper metal ions and prevents lipid peroxidation induced by copper or a free radical generator. When overexpressed in several human cell lines, SAG protects cells from apoptosis induced by redox agents (the metal chelator OP and zinc or copper metal ions). Mechanistically, SAG appears to inhibit and/or delay metal ion-induced cytochrome c release and caspase activation. Thus, SAG is a cellular protective molecule that appears to act as an antioxidant to inhibit apoptosis induced by metal ions and reactive oxygen species.