Virulence associated gene profiling and antimicrobial resistance pattern of Streptococcus suis isolated from clinically healthy pigs from North East India

This study revealed the prevalence of Streptococcus suis in 20·39% clinically healthy pigs from North East India. All these isolates were screened for the presence of virulence- associated genes such as suilysin (sly), muramidase released protein (mrp), extracellular protein factor (epf) and arginine deiminase (arcA). Of these 62 isolates, 29 isolates carried mrp gene, 17 isolates carried sly gene, 57 isolates carried arcA gene, whereas all isolates were negative for epf gene. The most prevalent genotype was mrp⁻ sly⁻ epf⁻ arcA⁺ (45·16%) followed by genotypes mrp⁺ sly⁻ epf⁻ arcA⁺ (27·41%), mrp⁺ sly⁺ epf⁻ arcA⁺ (19·35%) and mrp⁻ sly⁺ epf⁻ arcA⁻ (8·06%). High frequency of resistance was observed for antimicrobials such as tetracycline (93·54%), clindamycin (91·93%), co-trimoxazole (88·70%) and erythromycin (85·48%). Antimicrobial resistance patterns of the S. suis isolates revealed 16 resistance groups (R1 to R16), where 93·54% isolates showed multi-drug resistance (≥3 antimicrobial agents). It has also been observed that 57 (91·93%) isolates were resistant to at least four antimicrobials. The most predominant resistance pattern observed was CD-COT-E-TE, which accounted for 38·70% of the isolates. The occurrence of relatively high levels of resistance of S. suis to some antimicrobials (e.g., macrolides, tetracyclines, and sulphonamides) as observed in this study may represent a human health concern. In addition, a relatively higher percentage of S. suis isolated from clinically healthy pigs indicates a carrier status with risk of dissemination to other pigs in the herd as well as to humans.     

Characterization of Streptococcus suis Isolates from Slaughter Swine

The characterization of 61 Streptococcus suis strains isolated from Chinese slaughter pigs was investigated. S. suis serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, and 1/2 were found in the isolates by serum agglutination. Of all the prevalent serotypes, S. suis serotype 7 is the most predominant circulating in Chinese slaughter pigs. The virulence-associated genes profile and multilocus sequence typing scheme of the isolates were analyzed. The mrp-/epf-/sly- virulence-associated genes type is the most prevalent in the isolates from slaughter pigs. It is the first time to find S. suis serotypes 7 and 9 isolates with epf. The serotypes 7 and 9 isolates with mrp and/or epf genes did not express MRP and/or EF in the present research. Thirteen new ST types were identified for the first time. ST1 complex and ST27 complex of S. suis are prevalent in China. This paper supplied information to understand the characteristics, such as capsular serotypes, virulence factors, and gene backgrounds of S. suis carried by slaughter pigs.     

Prevalence of Streptococcus suis genotypes in wild boars of Northwestern Germany

Invasive serotype 2 (cps2+) strains of Streptococcus suis cause meningitis in pigs and humans. Four case reports of S. suis meningitis in hunters suggest transmission of S. suis through the butchering of wild boars. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of potentially human-pathogenic S. suis strains in wild boars. S. suis was isolated from 92% of all tested tonsils (n=200) from wild boars. A total of 244 S. suis isolates were genotyped using PCR assays for the detection of serotype-specific genes, the hemolysin gene sly, and the virulence-associated genes mrp and epf. The prevalence of the cps2+ genotype among strains from wild boars was comparable to that of control strains from domestic pig carriers. Ninety-five percent of the cps2+ wild boar strains were positive for mrp, sly, and epf*, the large variant of epf. Interestingly, epf* was significantly more frequently detected in cps2+ strains from wild boars than in those from domestic pigs; epf* is also typically found in European S. suis isolates from humans, including a meningitis isolate from a German hunter. These results suggest that at least 10% of wild boars in Northwestern Germany carry S. suis strains that are potentially virulent in humans. Additional amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis supported this hypothesis, since homogeneous clustering of the epf* mrp+ sly+ cps2+ strains from wild boars with invasive human and porcine strains was observed.     

Detection of Streptococcus suis in Bioaerosols of Swine Confinement Buildings

Streptococcus suis is an important swine pathogen that can cause septicemia, meningitis, and pneumonia. Also recognized as an emerging zoonotic agent, it is responsible for outbreaks of human infections in Asian countries. Serotype 2 is the predominant isolate from diseased animals and humans. The aerosolization of S. suis in the air of swine confinement buildings (SCB) was studied. The presence of S. suis in bioaerosols was monitored in SCB where cases of infection had been reported and in healthy SCB without reported infections. Using a quantitative-PCR (qPCR) method, we determined the total number of bacteria (1 × 10⁸ to 2 × 10⁸ airborne/m³), total number of S. suis bacteria (4 × 10⁵ to 10 × 10⁵ airborne/m³), and number of S. suis serotype 2 and 1/2 bacteria (1 × 10³ to 30 × 10³ airborne/m³) present in the air. S. suis serotypes 2 and 1/2 were detected in the air of all growing/finishing SCB that had documented cases of S. suis infection and in 50% of healthy SCB. The total number of bacteria and total numbers of S. suis and S. suis serotype 2 and 1/2 bacteria were monitored in one positive SCB during a 5-week period, and it was shown that the aerosolized S. suis serotypes 2 and 1/2 remain airborne for a prolonged period. When the effect of aerosolization on S. suis was observed, the percentage of intact S. suis bacteria (showing cell membrane integrity) in the air might have been up to 13%. Finally S. suis was found in nasal swabs from 14 out of 21 healthy finishing-SCB workers, suggesting significant exposure to the pathogen. This report provides a better understanding of the aerosolization, prevalence, and persistence of S. suis in SCB.     

Heavy Metal Resistance Patterns of Frankia Strains

The sensitivity of 12 Frankia strains to heavy metals was determined by a growth inhibition assay. In general, all of the strains were sensitive to low concentrations (<0.5 mM) of Ag¹⁺, AsO₂¹⁻, Cd²⁺, SbO₂¹⁻, and Ni²⁺, but most of the strains were less sensitive to Pb²⁺ (6 to 8 mM), CrO₄²⁻ (1.0 to 1.75 mM), AsO₄³⁻ (>50 mM), and SeO₂²⁻ (1.5 to 3.5 mM). While most strains were sensitive to 0.1 mM Cu²⁺, four strains were resistant to elevated levels of Cu²⁺ (2 to 5 mM and concentrations as high as 20 mM). The mechanism of SeO₂²⁻ resistance seems to involve reduction of the selenite oxyanion to insoluble elemental selenium, whereas Pb²⁺ resistance and Cu²⁺ resistance may involve sequestration or binding mechanisms. Indications of the resistance mechanisms for the other heavy metals were not as clear.     

Characterization of Cadmium Uptake in Lactobacillus plantarum and Isolation of Cadmium and Manganese Uptake Mutants

Two different Cd²⁺ uptake systems were identified in Lactobacillus plantarum. One is a high-affinity, high-velocity Mn²⁺ uptake system which also takes up Cd²⁺ and is induced by Mn²⁺ starvation. The calculated K_m and V_max are 0.26 μM and 3.6 μmol g of dry cell⁻¹ min⁻¹, respectively. Unlike Mn²⁺ uptake, which is facilitated by citrate and related tricarboxylic acids, Cd²⁺ uptake is weakly inhibited by citrate. Cd²⁺ and Mn²⁺ are competitive inhibitors of each other, and the affinity of the system for Cd²⁺ is higher than that for Mn²⁺. The other Cd²⁺ uptake system is expressed in Mn²⁺-sufficient cells, and no K_m can be calculated for it because uptake is nonsaturable. Mn²⁺ does not compete for transport through this system, nor does any other tested cation, i.e., Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Co²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Fe²⁺, or Ni²⁺. Both systems require energy, since uncouplers completely inhibit their activities. Two Mn²⁺-dependent L. plantarum mutants were isolated by chemical mutagenesis and ampicillin enrichment. They required more than 5,000 times as much Mn²⁺ for growth as the parental strain. Mn²⁺ starvation-induced Cd²⁺ uptake in both mutants was less than 5% the wild-type rate. The low level of long-term Mn²⁺ or Cd²⁺ accumulation by the mutant strains also shows that the mutations eliminate the high-affinity Mn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ uptake system.     

Priming of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi-Specific CD8+ T Cells by Suicide Dendritic Cell Cross-Presentation in Humans

Background

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi), the etiologic agent of typhoid fever, has aggravated an already important public health problem and added new urgency to the development of more effective typhoid vaccines. To this end it is critical to better understand the induction of immunity to S. Typhi. CD8⁺ T cells are likely to play an important role in host defense against S. Typhi by several effector mechanisms, including killing of infected cells and IFN-γ secretion. However, how S. Typhi regulates the development of specific CD8⁺ responses in humans remains unclear. Recent studies in mice have shown that dendritic cells (DC) can either directly (upon uptake and processing of Salmonella) or indirectly (by bystander mechanisms) elicit Salmonella-specific CD8⁺ T cells.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We report here that upon infection with live S. Typhi, human DC produced high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α, but low levels of IL-12 p70 and IFN-γ. In contrast, DC co-cultured with S. Typhi-infected cells, through suicide cross-presentation, uptake S. Typhi-infected human cells and release high levels of IFN-γ and IL-12p70, leading to the subsequent presentation of bacterial antigens and triggering the induction of memory T cells, mostly CD3⁺CD8⁺CD45RA⁻CD62L⁻ effector/memory T cells.

Conclusions/Significance

This study is the first to demonstrate the effect of S. Typhi on human DC maturation and on their ability to prime CD8⁺ cells and highlights the significance of these phenomena in eliciting adaptive immunity to S. Typhi.     

Rapid Evolution of Virulence and Drug Resistance in the Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Streptococcus suis

Background

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic pathogen that infects pigs and can occasionally cause serious infections in humans. S. suis infections occur sporadically in human Europe and North America, but a recent major outbreak has been described in China with high levels of mortality. The mechanisms of S. suis pathogenesis in humans and pigs are poorly understood.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The sequencing of whole genomes of S. suis isolates provides opportunities to investigate the genetic basis of infection. Here we describe whole genome sequences of three S. suis strains from the same lineage: one from European pigs, and two from human cases from China and Vietnam. Comparative genomic analysis was used to investigate the variability of these strains. S. suis is phylogenetically distinct from other Streptococcus species for which genome sequences are currently available. Accordingly, ∼40% of the ∼2 Mb genome is unique in comparison to other Streptococcus species. Finer genomic comparisons within the species showed a high level of sequence conservation; virtually all of the genome is common to the S. suis strains. The only exceptions are three ∼90 kb regions, present in the two isolates from humans, composed of integrative conjugative elements and transposons. Carried in these regions are coding sequences associated with drug resistance. In addition, small-scale sequence variation has generated pseudogenes in putative virulence and colonization factors.

Conclusions/Significance

The genomic inventories of genetically related S. suis strains, isolated from distinct hosts and diseases, exhibit high levels of conservation. However, the genomes provide evidence that horizontal gene transfer has contributed to the evolution of drug resistance.     

Distribution of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae DNA Modification Systems in Asia

The presence or absence of two DNA modification systems, XorI and XorII, in 195 strains of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae collected from different major rice-growing countries of Asia was assessed. All four possible phenotypes (XorI⁺ XorII⁺, XorI⁺ XorII⁻, XorI⁻ XorII⁺ and XorI⁻ XorII⁻) were detected in the population at a ratio of approximately 1:2:2:2. The XorI⁺ XorII⁺ and XorI⁻ XorII⁺ phenotypes were observed predominantly in strains from southeast Asia (Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia), whereas strains with the phenotypes XorI⁻ XorII⁻ and XorI⁺ XorII⁻ were distributed in south Asia (India and Nepal) and northeast Asia (China, Korea, and Japan), respectively. Based on the prevalence and geographic distribution of the XorI and XorII systems, we suggest that the XorI modification system originated in northeast Asia and was later introduced to southeast Asia, while the XorII system originated in southeast Asia and moved to northeast Asia and south Asia. Genomic DNA from all tested strains of X. oryzae pv. oryzae that were resistant to digestion by endonuclease XorII or its isoschizomer PvuI also hybridized with a 7.0-kb clone that contained the XorII modification system, whereas strains that were digested by XorII or PvuI lacked DNA that hybridized with the clone. Size polymorphisms were observed in fragments that hybridized with the 7.0-kb clone. However, a single hybridization pattern generally was found in XorII⁺ strains within a country, indicating clonal maintenance of the XorII methyltransferase gene locus. The locus was monomorphic for X. oryzae pv. oryzae strains from the Philippines and all strains from Indonesia and Korea.     

Expression of the Escherichia coli pntA and pntB Genes, Encoding Nicotinamide Nucleotide Transhydrogenase, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Its Effect on Product Formation during Anaerobic Glucose Fermentation

We studied the physiological effect of the interconversion between the NAD(H) and NADP(H) coenzyme systems in recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing the membrane-bound transhydrogenase from Escherichia coli. Our objective was to determine if the membrane-bound transhydrogenase could work in reoxidation of NADH to NAD⁺ in S. cerevisiae and thereby reduce glycerol formation during anaerobic fermentation. Membranes isolated from the recombinant strains exhibited reduction of 3-acetylpyridine-NAD⁺ by NADPH and by NADH in the presence of NADP⁺, which demonstrated that an active enzyme was present. Unlike the situation in E. coli, however, most of the transhydrogenase activity was not present in the yeast plasma membrane; rather, the enzyme appeared to remain localized in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum. During anaerobic glucose fermentation we observed an increase in the formation of 2-oxoglutarate, glycerol, and acetic acid in a strain expressing a high level of transhydrogenase, which indicated that increased NADPH consumption and NADH production occurred. The intracellular concentrations of NADH, NAD⁺, NADPH, and NADP⁺ were measured in cells expressing transhydrogenase. The reduction of the NADPH pool indicated that the transhydrogenase transferred reducing equivalents from NADPH to NAD⁺.     

Degeneration of a homing endonuclease and its target sequence in a wild yeast strain

Mobile introns and inteins self-propagate by ‘homing’, a gene conversion process initiated by site-specific homing endonucleases. The VMA intein, which encodes the PI-SceI endonuclease in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is present in several different yeast strains. Surprisingly, a wild wine yeast (DH1-1A) contains not only the intein⁺ allele, but also an inteinless allele that has not undergone gene conversion. To elucidate how these two alleles co-exist, we characterized the endonuclease encoded by the DH1-1A intein⁺ allele and the target site in the intein^– allele. Sequence analysis reveals seven mutations in the 31 bp recognition sequence, none of which occurs at positions that are individually critical for activity. However, binding and cleavage of the sequence by PI-SceI is reduced 10-fold compared to the S.cerevisiae target. The PI-SceI analog encoded by the DH1-1A intein⁺ allele contains 11 mutations at residues in the endonuclease and protein splicing domains. None affects protein splicing, but one, a R417Q substitution, accounts for most of the decrease in DNA cleavage and DNA binding activity of the DH1-1A protein. Loss of activity in the DH1-1A endonuclease and target site provides one explanation for co-existence of the intein⁺ and intein^– alleles.     

Effect of Licochalcone A on Growth and Properties of Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S.suis) is an important emerging worldwide pig pathogen and zoonotic agent with rapid evolution of virulence and drug resistance. In this study, we wanted to investigate the effect of licochalcone A on growth and properties of Streptococcus suis. The antimicrobial activity of licochalcone A was tested by growth inhibition assay and the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) also were determined. The effect of licochalcone A on S.suis biofilm formation was characterized by crystal violet staining. The effect of licochalcone A on suilysin secretion was evaluated by titration of hemolytic activity. To understand the antimicrobial effect, gene expression profile of S.suis treated by licochalcone A was analyzed by DNA microarray. Our results demonstrated that licochalcone A showed antimicrobial activity on S.suis with MICs of 4 µg/ml for S.suis serotype 2 strains and 8 µg/ml for S.suis serotype 7 strains. Biofilm formation was inhibited by 30–40% in the presence of licochalcone A (3 µg/ml) and suilysin secretion was also significantly inhibited in the presence of licochalcone A (1.5 µg/ml). The gene expression profile of S.suis in the presence of licochalcone A showed that 132 genes were differentially regulated, and we analyzed the regulated genes in the aspect of the bacterial cell cycle control. Among the deregulated genes, the genes responsible for the mass doubling was increased expression, but the genes responsible for DNA replication and cell division were inhibited the expression. So, we think the regulation of the cell cycle genes might provide a mechanistic understanding of licochalcone A mediated antimicrobial effect against S.suis.     

Purification and Properties of an Enzyme Capable of Degrading the Sheath of Sphaerotilus natans

Microorganisms which can degrade and grow on the purified sheath of a sheathed bacterium Sphaerotilus natans were collected from soil and river water. Two bacterial strains were isolated from the soil and designated strains TB and TK. Both strains are rod shaped, negatively stained by gram staining, facultatively anaerobic, and formed ellipsoidal endospores. These characteristics suggested that the isolates belong to the genus Paenibacillus, according to Ash et al. (C. Ash, F. G. Priest, and M. D. Collins, Antonie Leeuwenhoek 64:253–260, 1993). Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rDNA supported this possibility. Purification of the sheath-degrading enzyme was carried out from the culture broth of strain TB. The molecular weight of the enzyme was calculated to be 78,000 and 50,000 by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide electrophoresis and gel filtration chromatography, respectively. Enzyme activity was optimized at pH 6.5 to 7.0 and 30 to 40°C. The reaction was accelerated by the addition of Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Fe³⁺, and iodoacetamide, whereas it was inhibited by the addition of Cu²⁺, Mn²⁺, and dithiothreitol. The enzyme acted on the polysaccharide moiety of the sheath, producing an oligosaccharide the size of which was between the sizes of maltopentaose and maltohexaose. As the reaction proceeded, the absorbance at 235 nm of the reaction mixture increased, suggesting the generation of unsaturated sugars. Incorporation of unsaturated sugars was also suggested by the thiobarbituric acid reaction. It is possible that the enzyme is not a hydrolytic enzyme but a kind of polysaccharide eliminase which acts on the basic polysaccharide.     

Identification of Genes and Genomic Islands Correlated with High Pathogenicity in Streptococcus suis Using Whole Genome Tilling Microarrays

Streptococcus suis is an important zoonotic pathogen that can cause meningitis and sepsis in both pigs and humans. Infections in humans have been sporadic worldwide but two severe outbreaks occurred in China in recent years, while infections in pigs are a major problem in the swine industry. Some S. suis strains are more pathogenic than others with 2 sequence types (ST), ST1 and ST7, being well recognized as highly pathogenic. We analyzed 31 isolates from 23 serotypes and 25 STs by NimbleGen tiling microarray using the genome of a high pathogenicity (HP) ST1 strain, GZ1, as reference and a new algorithm to detect gene content difference. The number of genes absent in a strain ranged from 49 to 225 with a total of 632 genes absent in at least one strain, while 1346 genes were found to be invariably present in all strains as the core genome of S. suis, accounting for 68% of the GZ1 genome. The majority of genes are located in chromosomal blocks with two or more contiguous genes. Sixty two blocks are absent in two or more strains and defined as regions of difference (RDs), among which 26 are putative genomic islands (GIs). Clustering and statistical analyses revealed that 8 RDs including 6 putative GIs and 21 genes within these RDs are significantly associated with HP. Three RDs encode known virulence related factors including the extracellular factor, the capsular polysaccharide and a SrtF pilus. The strains were divided into 5 groups based on population genetic analysis of multilocus sequence typing data and the distribution of the RDs among the groups revealed gain and loss of RDs in different groups. Our study elucidated the gene content diversity of S. suis and identified genes that potentially promote HP.     

A Zebrafish Larval Model to Assess Virulence of Porcine Streptococcus suis Strains

Streptococcus suis is an encapsulated Gram-positive bacterium, and the leading cause of sepsis and meningitis in young pigs resulting in considerable economic losses in the porcine industry. It is also considered an emerging zoonotic agent. In the environment, both avirulent and virulent strains occur in pigs, and virulent strains appear to cause disease in both humans and pigs. There is a need for a convenient, reliable and standardized animal model to assess S. suis virulence. A zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae infection model has several advantages, including transparency of larvae, low cost, ease of use and exemption from ethical legislation up to 6 days post fertilization, but has not been previously established as a model for S. suis. Microinjection of different porcine strains of S. suis in zebrafish larvae resulted in highly reproducible dose- and strain-dependent larval death, strongly correlating with presence of the S. suis capsule and to the original virulence of the strain in pigs. Additionally we compared the virulence of the two-component system mutant of ciaRH, which is attenuated for virulence in both mice and pigs in vivo. Infection of larvae with the ΔciaRH strain resulted in significantly higher survival rate compared to infection with the S10 wild-type strain. Our data demonstrate that zebrafish larvae are a rapid and reliable model to assess the virulence of clinical porcine S. suis isolates.     

Identification of OmpT as the Protease That Hydrolyzes the Antimicrobial Peptide Protamine before It Enters Growing Cells of Escherichia coli

The influence of extracytoplasmic proteases on the resistance of Escherichia coli to the antimicrobial peptide protamine was investigated by testing strains with deletions in the protease genes degP, ptr, and ompT. Only ΔompT strains were hypersusceptible to protamine. This effect was abolished by plasmids carrying ompT. Both at low and at high Mg²⁺ concentrations, ompT⁺ strains cleared protamine from the medium within a few minutes. By contrast, at high Mg²⁺ concentrations, protamine remained present for at least 1 h in the medium of an ompT strain. These data indicate that OmpT is the protease that degrades protamine and that it exerts this function at the external face of the outer membrane.     

Ferrous Iron-Dependent Volatilization of Mercury by the Plasma Membrane of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans

Of 100 strains of iron-oxidizing bacteria isolated, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans SUG 2-2 was the most resistant to mercury toxicity and could grow in an Fe²⁺ medium (pH 2.5) supplemented with 6 μM Hg²⁺. In contrast, T. ferrooxidans AP19-3, a mercury-sensitive T. ferrooxidans strain, could not grow with 0.7 μM Hg²⁺. When incubated for 3 h in a salt solution (pH 2.5) with 0.7 μM Hg²⁺, resting cells of resistant and sensitive strains volatilized approximately 20 and 1.7%, respectively, of the total mercury added. The amount of mercury volatilized by resistant cells, but not by sensitive cells, increased to 62% when Fe²⁺ was added. The optimum pH and temperature for mercury volatilization activity were 2.3 and 30°C, respectively. Sodium cyanide, sodium molybdate, sodium tungstate, and silver nitrate strongly inhibited the Fe²⁺-dependent mercury volatilization activity of T. ferrooxidans. When incubated in a salt solution (pH 3.8) with 0.7 μM Hg²⁺ and 1 mM Fe²⁺, plasma membranes prepared from resistant cells volatilized 48% of the total mercury added after 5 days of incubation. However, the membrane did not have mercury reductase activity with NADPH as an electron donor. Fe²⁺-dependent mercury volatilization activity was not observed with plasma membranes pretreated with 2 mM sodium cyanide. Rusticyanin from resistant cells activated iron oxidation activity of the plasma membrane and activated the Fe²⁺-dependent mercury volatilization activity of the plasma membrane.     

A Protein Phosphorylation Threshold for Functional Stacking of Plant Photosynthetic Membranes

Phosphorylation of photosystem II (PSII) proteins affects macroscopic structure of thylakoid photosynthetic membranes in chloroplasts of the model plant Arabidopsis. In this study, light-scattering spectroscopy revealed that stacking of thylakoids isolated from wild type Arabidopsis and the mutant lacking STN7 protein kinase was highly influenced by cation (Mg⁺⁺) concentrations. The stacking of thylakoids from the stn8 and stn7stn8 mutants, deficient in STN8 kinase and consequently in light-dependent phosphorylation of PSII, was increased even in the absence of Mg⁺⁺. Additional PSII protein phosphorylation in wild type plants exposed to high light enhanced Mg⁺⁺-dependence of thylakoid stacking. Protein phosphorylation in the plant leaves was analyzed during day, night and prolonged darkness using three independent techniques: immunoblotting with anti-phosphothreonine antibodies; Diamond ProQ phosphoprotein staining; and quantitative mass spectrometry of peptides released from the thylakoid membranes by trypsin. All assays revealed dark/night-induced increase in phosphorylation of the 43 kDa chlorophyll-binding protein CP43, which compensated for decrease in phosphorylation of the other PSII proteins in wild type and stn7, but not in the stn8 and stn7stn8 mutants. Quantitative mass spectrometry determined that every PSII in wild type and stn7 contained on average 2.5±0.1 or 1.4±0.1 phosphoryl groups during day or night, correspondingly, while less than every second PSII had a phosphoryl group in stn8 and stn7stn8. It is postulated that functional cation-dependent stacking of plant thylakoid membranes requires at least one phosphoryl group per PSII, and increased phosphorylation of PSII in plants exposed to high light enhances stacking dynamics of the photosynthetic membranes.     

一株分离自流浪猫的猪链球菌9型的分子生物学鉴定北大核心CSCD

【目的】猪链球菌是一种能感染人和猪的人畜共患病病原,并且还可零星感染多种哺乳动物。本试验旨在调查流浪猫携带猪链球菌的情况。【方法】在流浪猫身上分离猪链球菌,经血清凝集实验和PCR检测,鉴定其血清型;经多序列位点分型分析,鉴定其ST型;将所分离的细菌与Gen Bank上已公布的猪链球菌构建16S rRNA的系统发育树,分析该菌株与其他猪链球菌的亲缘关系;药敏纸片法分析其耐药性;小鼠攻毒试验分析其毒力。【结果】本试验在流浪猫身上分离到一株猪链球菌,命名为m70,其血清型为9型。多序列位点分型显示,m70株属于一个新的ST型。与Gen Bank上已公布的猪链球菌16S rRNA进行系统发育树分析,结果显示m70属于一个单独的分支。m70与临床菌株的耐药情况相似,对四环素耐药,对红霉素中介耐药,对氨苄西林敏感。小鼠攻毒试验显示,感染10~8 CFU剂量m70的小鼠,死亡率达到60%–80%（3/5–4/5）,3次攻毒试验的平均LD（50）为5.1×107 CFU;而本实验室保存的猪链球菌强毒株HA9801感染小鼠的平均LD（50）为3.9×107 CFU,两者之间没有显著差异（P〈0.05）。【结论】从流浪猫身上分离得到的猪链球菌m70属于优势血清型,且毒力较强,提示一些流行血清型的猪链球菌强毒株具有从流浪猫传染人的潜在风险。