Genetics of the cell cycle: adaptive modification of the cycB2g mutation expression in dividing cells of Drosophila melanogaster

The effect of mutation CycB2g on mitosis in neural ganglia and imaginal disks was studied in third-instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosome condensation and segregation were shown to be impaired in dividing cells of mutant larvae. During the three-year period of maintenance of the mutation in heterozygote, frequencies of some defects decreased via cellular adaptive modification.     

Quartet: a Drosophila developmental mutation affecting chromosome separation in mitosis

The Drosophila mutation, quartet, affects development at points in the life cycle that require intense mitotic activity. Examination of embryos affected by the maternal effect of quartet has revealed defects that can be attributed to incomplete chromosome separation at mitosis. These defects include uneven spacing of nuclei, strands of DNA creating bridges between nuclei, and abnormal amounts of DNA per nucleus. Nuclei in quartet-affected embryos also have a greater-than-normal number of centrosomes. Immunofluorescent examination of the spindles in quartet-affected embryos has revealed tripolar spindles and adjacent spindles that share a common spindle pole. Finally, chromosome separation distance was measured in anaphase and telophase spindles in quartet-affected embryos and found to be blocked in anaphase. Examination of mitotic figures in quartet larvae revealed a reduced mitotic index and an elevated frequency of abnormal mitotic figures. quartet could encode a function necessary for the disengagement of chromosomes in mitosis, for kinetochore function or for function of a spindle motor. Mutations in quartet prevent the post-translational modification of three abundant proteins. These proteins may be involved in chromosome separation in mitosis.     

Genetics of the cell cycle: Adaptive modification of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">CycB</Emphasis><Superscript><Emphasis Type="Italic">2g</Emphasis></Superscript> mutation expression in dividing cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis>

The effect of mutation CycB ^2g on mitosis in neural ganglia and imaginal disks was studied in third-instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosome condensation and segregation were shown to be impaired in dividing cells of mutant larvae. During the three-year period of maintenance of the mutation in heterozygote, frequencies of some defects decreased via cellular adaptive modification.Translated from Genetika, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2005, pp. 312–319.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Lebedeva, Trunova, Omelyanchuk.     

The schedule of destruction of three mitotic cyclins can dictate the timing of events during exit from mitosis

BACKGROUND: Degradation of the mitotic cyclins is a hallmark of the exit from mitosis. Induction of stable versions of each of the three mitotic cyclins of Drosophila, cyclins A, B, and B3, arrests mitosis with different phenotypes. We tested a recent proposal that the destruction of the different cyclins guides progress through mitosis. RESULTS: Real-time imaging revealed that arrest phenotypes differ because each stable cyclin affects specific mitotic events differently. Stable cyclin A prolonged or blocked chromosome disjunction, leading to metaphase arrest. Stable cyclin B allowed the transition to anaphase, but anaphase A chromosome movements were slowed, anaphase B spindle elongation did not occur, and the monooriented disjoined chromosomes began to oscillate between the spindle poles. Stable cyclin B3 prevented normal spindle maturation and blocked major mitotic exit events such as chromosome decondensation but nonetheless allowed chromosome disjunction, anaphase B, and formation of a cytokinetic furrow, which split the spindle. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that degradation of distinct mitotic cyclins is required to transit specific steps of mitosis: cyclin A degradation facilitates chromosome disjunction, cyclin B destruction is required for anaphase B and cytokinesis and for directional stability of univalent chromosome movements, and cyclin B3 degradation is required for proper spindle reorganization and restoration of the interphase nucleus. We suggest that the schedule of degradation of cyclin A, cyclin B, and then cyclin B3 contributes to the temporal coordination of mitotic events.     

Genetic Control of Mitosis: Is Protein MASTν40 an Element of the Checkpoint System?

The effect of the mast ^v40 mutation was studied using neural ganglion cells of third-instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. The distributions of the cells by the interphase nucleus diameter and by the distance between the sister chromosome sets in anaphase were analyzed. Three following types of defects induced by the mutation were described: (1) Monopolar mitosis or, in the case of bipolar mitosis, an abnormally short distance between the sister chromosome sets in anaphase and early telophase. We suppose that these abnormalities are caused by damage of the start and (or) motor mechanisms of centrosome separation at the beginning and in the end of mitosis. (2) Lagging and bridging of chromosomes in anaphase and early telophase. These defects seem to be related to the disruption of functioning of mitotic spindle microtubules and (or) their defective attachment to the appropriate kinetochores. (3) Unlimited division of aneuploid and polyploid cells, which may be explained either by inactivation of the checkpoint system controlling the genome ploidy or by checkpoint adaptation. Taken collectively, our results and literature data suggest that the MAST protein is an element of the checkpoint system and that division of aneuploid and polyploid cells results from inactivation of the checkpoints.     

Genetic control of mitosis: features of origin of sister chromatid sets in anaphase in Drosophila melanogaster mutant line aar(V158)

The effect of mutation aarV158 on anaphase separation of chromatids was studied on fixed cells of neural ganglia of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. It was shown that mutation aarV158 causes three types of defective chromosome segregation manifested as (1) monopolar anaphase, (2) separation of chromatids to an abnormally short distance in anaphase, and (3) bridging and lagging of some chromatids or prolonged asynchronous separation of sister chromatid sets to the poles in anaphase. We believe that the former two types of defective segregation are caused by disturbed centrosome separation at the beginning of mitosis and the third type, by defects in chromatid separation during anaphase. During the two-year maintenance of the mutation in a heterozygous state, partial correction (adaptive modification) of the defects of type 1 and type 2 (but not type 3) occurred. The correction of type 1 and type 2 defects during adaptogenesis depended on the genotype: in heterozygotes and homozygotes, respectively type 1 and type 2 were preferentially corrected. The frequency of type 3 defects remained constant during the two-year period of maintenance of the mutation in a heterozygous state. However, in all variants of the experiment, their frequency decreased with increasing distance between the sister chromatid sets. In the cells that completed the previous division with abnormalities, the checkpoint system is supposed to effectively arrest the cell cycle in the subsequent division.     

Functional characteristics of the individual genomic condensin binding sites of Saccharomyces cerevisiae using minichromosome mitotic segregation stability model

Proper chromatin compaction in mitosis (condensation) is required for equal chromosome distribution and precise genetic information inheritance. Protein complex named condensin is responsible for the mitotic condensation, it also individualizes chromosomes, and ensures chromatin separation between sister chromatids in mitosis as well as proper mitotic spindle tension. Mitotic condensin function depends on recognition of the specific binding sites on the chromosome. Mechanism of condensin binding on the individual sites of the mitotic chromosomes, as well as molecular anatomy of these sites remains to be unclear. Even less known is how condensin binding on the individual sites helps separating chromosomes in anaphase. In current paper using minichromosome test, we analyze seven individual condensin binding sites in Saccharomyces cerevisiae found in previous all-genome CHIP on CHIP screening in our lab. This approach allowed us to find out what was the individual contribution of condensin binding sites in securing mitotic stability of the minichromosomes.     

Functional characterization of individual genomic condensin-binding sites in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis> using minichromosome mitotic segregation stability assay

Proper chromatin compaction in mitosis (condensation) is required for equal chromosome distribution and the precise inheritance of genetic information. A protein complex called condensin is responsible for mitotic chromosome condensation, chromosome individualization, the timely separation of sister chromatids in mitosis, and proper tension in the mitotic spindle. The mitotic function of condensin depends on the recognition of specific binding sites in the chromosome. The mechanism for binding condensin to individual sites of mitotic chromosomes, as well as the molecular anatomy of these sites, remains to be elucidated. Even less is known about the process that translates condensin binding to individual sites into the segregation of chromosomes in anaphase. In the present work, by using minichromosome assay, we analyze seven individual condensin-binding sites in S. cerevisiae identified in the whole-genome ChIP-on-chip screening. This approach allowed us to estimate the individual contribution of condensin-binding sites to the segregation fidelity of minichromosomes.     

Genetic control of mitosis. Mast(v40) protein--an element of checkpoints system?

The effect of the mastv40 mutation was studied using neural ganglion cells of third-instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. The distributions of the cells by the interphase nucleus diameter and by the distance between the sister chromosome sets in anaphase were analyzed. Three following types of defects induced by the mutation were described: (1) Monopolar mitosis or, in the case of bipolar mitosis, an abnormally short distance between the sister chromosome sets in anaphase and early telophase. We believe that these abnormalities are caused by damage of the start and (or) motor mechanisms of centrosome separation at the beginning and in the end of mitosis. (2) Lagging and bridging of chromosomes in anaphase and early telophase. These defects seem to be related to the disruption of functioning of mitotic spindle microtubules and (or) their defective attachment to the appropriate kinetochores. (3) Unlimited division of aneuploid and polyploid cells, which may be explained either by inactivation of the checkpoint system controlling the genome ploidy or by checkpoint adaptation. Taken collectively, our results and literature data suggest that the MAST protein is an element of the checkpoint system and that division of aneuploid and polyploid cells results from inactivation of the checkpoints.     

Genetic Control of Mitosis: Features of Anaphase Separation of Sister Chromatid Sets in Mutant Strain aar V158 in Drosophila melanogaster

The effect of mutation aar ^V158 on anaphase separation of chromatids was studied on fixed cells of neural ganglia of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. It was shown that mutation aar ^V158 causes three types of defective chromosome segregation manifested as (1) monopolar anaphase, (2) separation of chromatids to an abnormally short distance in anaphase, and (3) bridging and lagging of some chromatids or prolonged asynchronous separation of sister chromatid sets to the poles in anaphase. We believe that the former two types of defective segregation are caused by disturbed centrosome separation at the beginning of mitosis and the third type, by defects in chromatid separation during anaphase. During the two-year maintenance of the mutation in a heterozygous state, partial correction (adaptive modification) of the defects of type 1 and type 2 (but not type 3) occurred. The correction of type 1 and type 2 defects during adaptogenesis depended on the genotype: in heterozygotes and homozygotes, respectively type 1 and type 2 were preferentially corrected. The frequency of type 3 defects remained constant during the two-year period of maintenance of the mutation in a heterozygous state. However, in all variants of the experiment, their frequency decreased with increasing distance between the sister chromatid sets. In the cells that completed the previous division with abnormalities, the checkpoint system is supposed to effectively arrest the cell cycle in the subsequent division.     

New insights into the regulation of anaphase by mitotic cyclins in budding yeast

Mitotic cyclins drive initiation and progression through mitosis. However, their role during progression remains poorly understood due to their essential function in initiation of mitosis and redundant activities. The function of the principal mitotic cyclin, Clb2, in S. cerevisiae, was investigated during progression through anaphase in diploid cells after DNA damage and during normal growth using fixed and live cell fluorescence techniques. I find that during anaphase, absence of Clb2 affects chromosome movement and plays an important role in inhibiting kinetochore microtubules regrowth. In addition, absence of Clb2 leads to defects and the collapse of spindle pole body separation. Most unexpectedly, new bipolar spindle forms and spindle re-forms. The intensity of the defects appears to correlate with strength of checkpoint activation, and during adaptation to DNA damage, these defects lead to important chromosome missegregation, during normal growth, defects are resolved rapidly. During recovery, intermediate phenotypes are observed. Altogether, data reveal new and unexpected roles for mitotic cyclins during progression through mitosis; results indicate that mitotic cyclins play key role in growth suppression of kinetochore microtubules and suggest that new bipolar spindle formation might be actively inhibited by mitotic cyclins during anaphase.     

Late mitotic functions of Aurora kinases

The coordination between late mitotic events such as poleward chromosome motion, spindle elongation, DNA decondensation, and nuclear envelope reformation (NER) is crucial for the completion of chromosome segregation at the anaphase-telophase transition. Mitotic exit is driven by a decrease of Cdk1 kinase activity and an increase of PP1/PP2A phosphatase activities. More recently, Aurora kinases have also emerged as master regulators of late mitotic events and cytokinesis. Aurora A is mainly associated with spindle poles throughout mitosis and midbody during telophase, whereas Aurora B re-localizes from centromeres in early mitosis to the spindle midzone and midbody as cells progress from anaphase to the completion of cytokinesis. Functional studies, together with the identification of a phosphorylation gradient during anaphase, established Aurora B as a major player in the organization of the spindle midzone and in the spatiotemporal coordination between chromosome segregation and NER. Aurora A has been less explored, but a cooperative role in spindle midzone stability has also been proposed, implying that both Aurora A and B contribute to accurate chromosome segregation during mitotic exit. Here, we review the roles of the Aurora kinases in the regulation of late mitotic events and discuss how they work together with other mitotic players to ensure an error-free mitosis.     

Activation of the nimA protein kinase plays a unique role during mitosis that cannot be bypassed by absence of the bimE checkpoint.

Mutation of nimA reversibly arrests cells in late G2 and nimA overexpression promotes premature mitosis. Here we demonstrate that the product of nimA (designated NIMA) has protein kinase activity that can phosphorylate beta-casein but not histone proteins. NIMA kinase activity is cell cycle regulated being 20-fold higher at mitosis when compared to S-phase arrested cells. NIMA activation is normally required in G2 to initiate chromosome condensation, to nucleate spindle pole body microtubules, and to allow an MPM-2 specific mitotic phosphorylation. All three of these mitotic events can occur in the absence of activated NIMA when the bimE gene is mutated (bimE7). However, the bimE7 mutation cannot completely bypass the requirement for nimA during mitosis as entry into mitosis in the absence of NIMA activation results in major mitotic defects that affect both the organization of the nuclear envelope and mitotic spindle. Thus, although nimA plays an essential but limited role during mitosis, mutation of nimA arrests all of mitosis. We therefore propose that mutation of nimA prevents mitotic initiation due to a checkpoint arrest that is negatively mediated by bimE. The checkpoint ensures that mitosis is not initiated until NIMA is mitotically activated.     

Genetic control of mitosis. Premature beginning of telophase chromatin reorganization in cells of the Drosophila melanogaster strain with ff3 mutation

The effect of cell cycle mutation ff3 on chromosome segregation was studied on fixed cells of neural ganglia. The cell distributions by diameter of interphase nuclei and by distance between sister chromatid sets were compared at anaphase and telophase. In the control wild-type strain Lausenne, the cell distribution by distance between sister chromatids in anaphase was similar to their distribution by nuclear size. The mean distance between segregating chromatids at anaphase (lcp) coincided with the mean diameter of interphase nuclei (dcp) and was 8.3 microns. Cells passed to telophase when chromatids were at least 10 microns apart. The mutant ff3 strain differed from the control strain Lausenne in cell distribution by interphase nuclear diameter and distance between sister chromatids in anaphase; the mean nuclear diameter and mean distance between segregating chromatids similarly increased to 9.3 microns. A specific feature of mitosis in mutant strain ff3 was a premature beginning of telophase chromatin reorganization. This caused the occurrence of cells with abnormally short (less then the interphase nuclear diameter) distance between sister chromatid sets in telophase but not in anaphase, as if these cells had passed from anaphase to telophase prematurely, during the chromatid movement toward poles in anaphase A.     

TRANSIENT LOCALIZATION OF γ-TUBULIN AROUND THE CENTRIOLES IN THE NUCLEAR DIVISION OF BOERGESENIA FORBESII (SIPHONOCLADALES, CHLOROPHYTA)

Mitosis in Boergesenia forbesii (Harvey) Feldman was studied by immunofluorescence microscopy using anti-β–tubulin, anti-γ–tubulin, and anti-centrin antibodies. In the interphase nucleus, one, two, or rarely three anti-centrin staining spots were located around the nucleus, indicating the existence of centrioles. Microtubules (MTs) elongated randomly from the circumference of the nuclear envelope, but distinct microtubule organizing centers could not be observed. In prophase, MTs located around the interphase nuclei became fragmented and eventually disappeared. Instead, numerous MTs elongated along the nuclear envelope from the discrete anti-centrin staining spots. Anti-centrin staining spots duplicated and migrated to the two mitotic poles. γ–Tubulin was not detected at the centrioles during interphase but began to localize there from prophase onward. The mitotic spindle in B. forbesii was a typical closed type, the nuclear envelope remaining intact during nuclear division. From late prophase, accompanying the chromosome condensation, spindle MTs could be observed within the nuclear envelope. A bipolar mitotic spindle was formed at metaphase, when the most intense staining of γ-tubulin around the centrioles could also be seen. Both spindle MT poles were formed inside the nuclear envelope, independent of the position of the centrioles outside. In early anaphase, MTs between separating daughter chromosomes were not detected. Afterward, characteristic interzonal spindle MTs developed and separated both sets of the daughter chromosomes. From late anaphase to telophase, γ-tubulin could not be detected around the centrioles and MT radiation from the centrioles became diminished at both poles. γ-Tubulin was not detected at the ends of the interzonal spindle fibers. When MTs were depolymerized with amiprophos methyl during mitosis, γ-tubulin localization around the centrioles was clearly confirmed. Moreover, an influx of tubulin molecules into the nucleus for the mitotic spindle occurred at chromosome condensation in mitosis.     

SMC5 and MMS21 are required for chromosome cohesion and mitotic progression

Members of the structural maintenance of chromosome (SMC) protein family have essential functions during mitosis, ensuring chromosome condensation (SMC2/4) and cohesion (SMC1/3). The SMC5/6 complex has been implicated in a variety of DNA maintenance processes but unlike the other SMC proteins, SMC5/6 have not been attributed any role in mitosis. Here, we find that ablation of either SMC5 or the SUMO-ligase MMS21 leads to premature sister chromatid separation prior to anaphase. The failure of normal chromosome alignment activates the spindle assembly checkpoint and blocks mitotic progression. Interestingly, there is no similar mitotic response to ablation of SMC6. Further, we show that mitotic SMC5 co-elutes from column fractions that contain MMS21 but lack SMC6. Our results thus establish that SMC5 is crucial for mitotic progression and maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion during mitosis, and that this role of SMC5 seems to be independent of the SMC5/6 complex.     

‘… The End of the Beginning’: Cdk1 Thresholds and Exit from Mitosis

Exit from mitosis requires the proteolytic degradation of mitotic cyclins, which is instigated by the APC/C ubiquitin ligase. The coincidence of mitotic cyclin B1 degradation with the onset of anaphase intuitively suggested a requirement of cyclin degradation for sister chromatid separation. While this hypothesis has originally been refuted, evidence that cyclin B1 degradation is required for anaphase during meiosis has been obtained, while its requirement for anaphase during mitosis is still more controversial. By studying human cells engineered to express non-degradable cyclin B1, we have recently shown that stable cyclin B1 affects progression through mitosis at various steps in a dose-dependent manner. These experiments suggest that controlled exit from mitosis might involve CDK activity thresholds for important late mitotic events, such as the onset of anaphase, formation of the spindle midzone, the onset of cytokinesis, cellular abscission and chromosome decondensation.     

Chromosomal behavior in starfish (Asterina pectinifera) zygotes under the effect of aphidicolin, an inhibitor of DNA polymerase

When calf thymus histones were labeled fluorescently and microinjected into oocytes of the starfish, Asterina pectinifera, the labeled histones visualized chromosomes during maturation division and cleavage. In doing so, we confirmed the previously reported phenomenon that chromosomes became incompetent at the first cleavage in the aphidicolin-treated egg, although cleavage itself took place. Moreover, we found that chromosomes were aligned at the equator of the metaphase spindle of the first cleavage and that they did not separate into two groups at all, but made a lump in the middle of the spindle. Chromosomes finally entered one blastomere, although they did not participate in the following karyokinesis. DNA and microtubules were examined by cytochemistry and immunofluorescence in order to investigate the relation between chromosome movement and the microtubular cytoskeleton. The mitotic apparatus developed and grew in the aphidicolin-treated cells in the same manner as those in normal cells without normal chromatin condensation or chromosome movement during the first cleavage. However, the mitotic apparatus consisted of two asters without the spindle formed at subsequent cleavages. Electron microscopic study revealed that chromosomes did not condense normally and kinetochores were not detected during the first cleavage. These results indicate that the dynamic changes in microtubular structures during mitosis have poor relation with the chromosome behavior such as prophase chromosome condensation and anaphase chromosome movement.     

Histone H1 is essential for mitotic chromosome architecture and segregation in Xenopus laevis egg extracts

During cell division, condensation and resolution of chromosome arms and the assembly of a functional kinetochore at the centromere of each sister chromatid are essential steps for accurate segregation of the genome by the mitotic spindle, yet the contribution of individual chromatin proteins to these processes is poorly understood. We have investigated the role of embryonic linker histone H1 during mitosis in Xenopus laevis egg extracts. Immunodepletion of histone H1 caused the assembly of aberrant elongated chromosomes that extended off the metaphase plate and outside the perimeter of the spindle. Although functional kinetochores assembled, aligned, and exhibited poleward movement, long and tangled chromosome arms could not be segregated in anaphase. Histone H1 depletion did not significantly affect the recruitment of known structural or functional chromosomal components such as condensins or chromokinesins, suggesting that the loss of H1 affects chromosome architecture directly. Thus, our results indicate that linker histone H1 plays an important role in the structure and function of vertebrate chromosomes in mitosis.