The effect of feeding frequency on growth performance of juvenile cobia,Rachycentron canadum (Linnaeus, 1766)

The present study was carried out to investigate the number of daily feeding sessions that results in maximum growth of juvenile cobia under laboratory conditions. Groups of eight fish (110 g) were randomly distributed in twenty 500‐L tanks and hand‐fed a commercial diet for 60 days. The same amount of feed was offered daily, divided in 1, 2, 3, four or six meals. None of the parameters associated with growth performance (survival, weight gain, specific growth rate, feed intake, condition factor or size variation) showed any significant differences among treatments. Although under the present conditions feeding frequency had no effect on the growth performance of cobia larger than 110 g, in commercial farming operations where large numbers of fish are kept within a single rearing structure, fish may have aggressive interactions during feeding. Under these conditions, it is difficult to ensure that all cobia are fed to satiation and thus it is usual to provide two or more meals per day. The present results indicate that for an individual cobia the provision of more than one daily meal has no significant effect on growth performance.     

Effect of water temperature,feeding frequency,and protein percent in the diet on water quality,growth and behavior of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)

This study evaluated how water temperature (26, 28, and 30°C), number of meals per day (one or two meals), and protein percent in diet (20, 25 and 30%) impact growth performance, biometric indices, and feeding behavior of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Fish were randomly allocated into 18 equal replicate groups. Higher final body weight was observed in fish reared at 30°C and fed one meal per day containing 30% crude protein. Better weight gain, weight gain %, feed conversion ratio, specific growth rate, and condition factor were recorded in fish reared at 26°C and fed one meal per day containing 30% protein. The best length weight relationship was obtained in fish reared at 26°C and fed one meal per day containing 30% crude protein. Shorter feeding duration and duration of appetite inhibition latency were recorded in fish reared at 30°C, fed one meal per day, and given a diet containing 30% protein. The highest proactivity was recorded in fish reared at 30°C, received one meal per day, and with 25% crude protein in their diet. Conclusively, rearing Nile tilapia at 26–30°C with a lower feeding frequency (one meal/day) and a 30% crude protein diet achieved better performance and feeding behavior.     

Effect of feeding frequency on growth, feed utilization, and size variation of juvenile gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio)

Juvenile (3.0 ± 0.2 g) gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) were fed to satiation for 8 weeks to investigate the effect of feeding frequency on growth, feed utilization and size variation. Five feeding frequencies were tested: two meals per day (M2), three meals per day (M3), four meals per day (M4), 12 meals per day (M12) and 24 meals per day (M24). The results showed that daily food intake increased significantly with the increase in feeding frequency and there was no significant difference between daily food intakes in M12 and M24 treatments. Growth rate, feed efficiency increased significantly with increasing feeding frequencies. Size variation was not affected by feeding frequency. Apparent digestibility of dry matter was not influenced by feeding frequency, while apparent digestibility of protein and energy increased significantly at high feeding frequencies. The feeding frequency had no significant effect on the moisture, lipid, protein, or energy contents of gibel carp, while the ash content decreased with increased feeding frequency. It was recommended that 24 meals per day was the optimal feeding frequency for juvenile gibel carp.     

Growth performance and body composition in response to dietary protein and lipid levels in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) subjected to normal and temporally restricted feeding regimes

A factorial experiment was designed to examine the effect on compensatory growth (CG) of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus fed diets containing different protein and lipid levels under normal and temporally restricted feeding regimes. Four diets were formulated to contain either 30% or 36% crude protein, and 5% or 11% crude lipid. Triplicate replicates of each treatment were assigned to 24 150‐L tanks (20 fish/tank density). Fish (mean initial weight ± SD = 8.79 ± 0.34 g) were then fed either the normal feeding regime (thrice daily to apparent satiation) or the restricted regime (1 day feed deprivation followed by 3 days of feeding to apparent satiation) over a 44‐days study period. Fish receiving a diet under the restricted regime achieved weight gains (WG) comparable to fish consuming the diet containing 30% protein and 5% lipids under the normal feeding regime. Fish maintained on the restricted feeding regime exhibited reduced feed intake (FI), WG, feed efficiency ratio (FE), protein efficiency rate (PER) and hepatosomatic index versus fish on the normal feeding regime, except WG in fish fed the diet with 30% protein and 5% lipids. However, the resultant FI (85%~94%) was higher than the excepted 75% intake when fish were subjected to the restricted regime. Feeding 11% lipid diets led to improved FI, WG, FE, and PER compared to feeding the 5% lipid diets. Increased FI, WG, and FE, but reduced PER were observed in fish fed with 36% protein versus fish fed 30% protein. Fish receiving the 36% protein diets had lower whole‐body moisture and ash contents, but elevated whole‐body protein and lipid contents compared to those receiving the 30% protein diets. Whole‐body moisture contents were lower, but whole‐body protein, lipid and ash contents were higher in fish fed 11% lipid diets than in fish fed 5% lipid diets. There was an increase in whole‐body moisture content, but a decrease in protein and lipid content in response to the restricted feeding regime. Ash content was not affected by the feeding regime. The present study shows that Nile tilapia fed diets subjected to a restricted feeding regime exhibited growth comparable to those fed the diet at 30% protein and 5% lipid levels under a normal feeding regime. This positive effect was more pronounced in diets at a high protein level or in a combination of high protein and lipid levels.     

Partial compensatory growth in hybrid tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus × O. niloticus following food deprivation

The capacity of hybrid tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus × O. niloticus [23.2 ± 0.2 g (mean ± SE)] to show compensatory growth was assessed in an 8‐week experiment. Fish were deprived of feed for 1, 2 and 4 weeks, and then fed to satiation for 4 weeks; fish fed to satiation during the experiment served as control. Water temperature gradually declined from 28.1 to 25.5°C throughout the experiment. Specific growth rate (SGR) decreased with progressive food deprivation. At the end of deprivation, body weight was lower in the deprived fish than in the control. Fish deprived for 4 weeks exhibited lower contents of lipids and energy in whole body, and higher moisture content and ratio of protein to energy (P/E) than those of the control; they also consumed feed faster than the control when normal feeding was resumed. All deprived fish showed higher food intake (FI) than that of the control during re‐alimentation; however, enhanced SGR was only observed in the fish deprived for 4 weeks. There were no significant differences in digestibility of protein and energy, food efficiency (FE) or energy retention efficiency between the control and deprived fish. At the end of re‐alimentation, deprived fish failed to catch up in body weight with the control, while content of moisture, lipids and energy, and P/E in whole body of the deprived fish did not significantly differ from that of the control. The results of the experiment revealed that the hybrid tilapia reared in freshwater showed partial capacity for compensatory growth following food deprivation of 4 weeks, and that growth compensation was due mainly to increased FI, rather than to improved FE.     

The effect of feeding rate on growth of pectoral fin spine of juvenile great sturgeon Huso huso (Linnaeus, 1758)

The effect of two feeding rates (0.5 and 1.5% of total body weight) was assessed on the growth of pectoral fin spines of captive juvenile great sturgeon, Huso huso, after second year of life. The fish received Oxytetracycline (OTC) twice in the first and second years of their lives under basic diet. During the 5‐month experimental period, juveniles (mean 1,187.4 g, 0.1 standard deviation [SD]), n = 50) were reared with two feeding rates under similar conditions in 10 fiberglass tanks (1.5 m³). The fish were fed manually with a commercial diet twice a day (35% Biomar, Nersac, France) throughout the experiment. The OTC marks were distinguished in all pectoral fin spine sections under ultraviolet light. The means of the first and second annular radii were 806.6 µm (27.2 SD) and 2,246.5 µm (50.2 SD), respectively. The marginal increment analysis beyond the second OTC mark revealed a significantly smaller marginal increment for low feeding rate treatment (143.9, 11.2 SD) as compared to the high feeding rate one (269.0, 14.6 SD). The results indicate the slower growth rate in the fish fed the low feeding treatments seen in the pectoral fin spine formation, which can be used as an indicator of recent feeding history in sturgeon juveniles. The best daily feeding rate for great sturgeon of 2,460 g was determined to be 1.5% body weight/day in this study.     

The effect of feeding strategies and body weight on growth performance and hematological parameters of Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii,Brandt 1869): Preliminary results

The purpose of present study was to investigate the growth performance and hematological parameters of Siberian sturgeon Acipenser baerii in three feeding strategies (satiation feeding, restricted feeding and starvation). We considered two body weights 465.75 ± 11.18 g and 250.40 ± 12 g for large fish and small fish, respectively. In a 45‐day experiment, eighteen fiberglass tanks were used for six triplicate treatments. In restricted feeding strategy, the fish were fed to 50% of satiation and starved treatments were an absolute feed deprivation throughout the experiment. At the end of 45‐day period, the hematological parameters were measured. The reduction of weight, condition factor and daily growth rate in the smaller fish was dramatically higher than the larger fish. Feed deprivation increased the rate of weight loss. Specific growth rate were negative in the large and small fish of starved treatments. The hematological results revealed no significant differences in except for the number of monocytes in larger fish. Large satiated fish showed the highest number of monocytes. In general, these strategies (restriction and deprivation) did not have any negative impacts on the hematological parameter in both sizes but respect to fish body weight, difference in total feed input between satiated and restricted treatments changed growth performance. It seems that restricted feeding (50% of satiation) in large fish was enough to achieve optimal growth while the amount of feed provided for small fish was not enough. Therefore; we can conclude that the restricted feeding is an effective strategy in rearing sturgeon at higher weight when the rearing condition is unsuitable.     

Stomach pH,feeding rhythm and ingestion rate in Oreochromis niloticus L. (Pisces: Cichlidae) in Lake Awasa,Ethiopia

Fish were caught in February and October, 1985 with gill and trawl nets at different time intervals. The length and weight of the fish, the stomach pH and the weight of the stomach contents were determined. The feeding pattern of O. niloticus was observed to have a diel rhythm. The stomach became more acidic towards the afternoon and most of the evening. The pH of the stomach had a significant regression on stomach fullness. The feeding rate of O. niloticus in Lake Awasa was estimated from daily feeding periodicity and rate of gastric evacuation. The fish ingests 11.5% of their wet body weight daily at an average water temperature of 21.5 °C. It is believed that the fish ingests and assimilates adequate supply of energy (9.1 KJ/day) for growth, maintenance and other energy requiring activities of the fish.     

Effect of ration size and feeding frequency on growth, size distribution and survival of juvenile clownfish, Amphiprion percula

This study describes the growth of juvenile clownfish, Amphiprion percula Lacépède 1802, fed with an artificial diet at six ration sizes of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12% of body mass per day (BM day^?1) each at a feeding frequency of once, twice and three times per day. The effect of ration size on growth depended on the feeding frequency. In fish fed once a day growth did not improve above a ration size of 8% BM day^?1. At two feedings per day fish required a ration size of at least 6% BM day^?1 to achieve good growth, and fish fed three times per day grew at similar rates above a ration size of 4% BM day^?1. A model to estimate the combined effect of ration size and feeding frequency is presented. The results lead to the suggestion of a simple length‐based feeding regimen that could be tested in future studies on this species or adapted for use in other species.     

Individual rainbow trout can learn and anticipate multiple daily feeding times

The present study was conducted to investigate whether individual rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss can simultaneously anticipate two daily meals, and to evaluate the influence of time-restricted feeding schedules and light-dark (L:D) cycles on the timing of self-feeding activity. Individual rainbow trout were capable of anticipating not only a single meal but also two daily meals scheduled at different times; the duration of anticipation was short and precise. This seems to be the first convincing evidence to show that a single fish can simultaneously anticipate two daily meals. Change in the onset and cessation of light did not affect the duration of food-anticipatory activity, although it led to shift the phases of the light-related self-feeding activity. Moreover, under constant light and ad lib feeding conditions, only one band of rhythmic activity was observed in individual rainbow trout that had previously developed food-anticipatory activity to each of the two daily meals.     

Number of meals in a day, maximum weight of food consumed in a day and maximum rate of feeding for brown trout, Salmo trutta L.

Brown trout (live weight 9–302 g) were fed to satiation in each of four meals at seven different water temperatures (range 3.8–18.1°C). The period (Ih) from the start of one meal to the start of the following meal was not significantly affected by the weight (Wg) of the trout, but was negatively correlated with water temperature (T°C). A regression equation described the exponential relationship between I and T, and also estimated the number of meals {N) in a day. Values ranged from one meal at about 4°C t o three meals at about 18°C, The greatest increase in appetite occurred at the end of the period I. The maximum weight offood (Drng) eaten in a day was positively correlated with both W and T, a relationship which was well described by a multiple regression equation. The maximum rate of feeding (Fmg h⁻¹) was not significantly affected by W, but increased from 3.8 to 6.8°C, was fairly constant from 6.8 to 19.3°C, and decreased markedly above 19.3°C. Estimates of D and F(with 95% confidence limits) were applicable to a wide variety offood organisms with the exception of mealworms. From comparisons with the results of other workers, it was concluded that the upper limit ofthe daily energy intake determines the optimum temperature for growth.     

Effect of feeding schedule on apparent energy and amino acid digestibility by growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding schedule on dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP), and amino acid (AA) digestibility by growing pigs. Six growing castrates (initial body weight: 40.5 ± 2.25 kg) were equipped with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a repeated 3 × 3 Latin square design with three animals and three periods in each square. A maize–soybean meal based diet (181 g CP/kg) was formulated and fed to the pigs in three different feeding schedules; i.e., one meal per day, two meals per day, or free access to feed. Pigs fed one or two meals per day were allotted a daily amount of feed equivalent to three times the maintenance energy requirement. Fecal and ileal samples were collected from all pigs in each period. The coefficients of ileal apparent digestibility (CIAD) for DM, GE, CP, and AA were calculated as were the coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) of DM and GE. Results of the experiment showed that there were no differences in the CIAD for DM, GE, or for any of the AA among the three feeding schedules. In contrast, pigs given free access to the diet had lower (P<0.002) CTTAD for DM and GE compared with pigs fed a restricted amount of feed either once or twice daily. Therefore, the concentration of digestible energy in the diet was lower if calculated from pigs given free access to the diet compared with pigs fed the diet once or twice daily (14.38 MJ/kg versus 14.83 MJ/kg and 15.13 MJ/kg). It is concluded that the feeding schedule does not influence the CIAD for DM, GE, CP, or AA by pigs. Therefore, any of the three feeding schedules that were used in the current experiment may be used in experiments aimed at measuring CIAD in pigs. However, if the CTTAD of DM and GE are measured, it is recommended that pigs are given free access to feed.     

A comparative study of feeding methods: Effect on the growth,behaviour and biochemical performance of juvenile Beluga sturgeon (Huso huso Linnaeus, 1758)

This study compared the influence of feeding methods on growth parameters of young‐of‐year Beluga sturgeon Huso huso in a 6‐week trial. Fish with an average weight 150.3 ± 0.8 g (±SE) were stocked into nine circular concrete tanks (30 fish per tank) in an open circular system with water temperature of 18.9°C. All fish were fed by three different feeding methods: (a) hand‐fed (HF), (b) continuously available (automated feeder; AF), (c) half of daily feed provided by hand, and another half by automated feeder (combined feeding). For the hand‐feeding method, fish were fed at 09:00, 14:00, 19:00, and 24:00. The entire automatic feeding groups were fed with the same amount of feed. The mean final body weight was the highest in fish fed by AF compared to fish fed by HF. Body weight increase, condition factor, specific growth rate, and feed conversion ratio did not differ among the feeding groups. Fish fed by AF revealed higher swimming activity than the HF group. No significant changes were found in hematocrit, glucose and total protein concentrations among treatments. The results showed less dependence of growth and physiology of Beluga sturgeon on feeding method, but automated‐feeding was shown to be suitable for sturgeon rearing because of further low labour costs in rearing systems.     

饲料蛋白质水平与投喂频率对大黄鱼生长、体组成及蛋白质代谢的影响

以初始体重为(13.640.18)g的大黄鱼( Pseudosciaena crocea R.) 幼鱼为实验对象, 采用32双因子实验, 研究饲料蛋白质水平(40%、45%、50%)和投喂频率(2次/d、1次/d)及其交互作用对其生长、体组成和蛋白质代谢的影响。养殖实验在海水浮式网箱中进行, 养殖周期为8周。结果表明: 饲料蛋白质水平和投喂频率对大黄鱼幼鱼的增重率(WGR)、特定生长率(SGR)和饲料转化率(FCR)均影响显著(P0.05)。在40%和45%蛋白质组, 1次/d投喂的大黄鱼幼鱼的WGR和SGR均显著低于2次/d投喂组, 而FCR则相反。在2次/d投喂时, 45%蛋白质组的大黄鱼幼鱼SGR显著高于40%蛋白质组, 但与50%蛋白质组差异不显著(P0.05)。而在1次/d投喂时, 50%蛋白质组的大黄鱼幼鱼SGR显著高于40%和45%蛋白质组。在两种投喂频率下, 随着饲料蛋白质水平提高, 鱼体水分含量均有升高趋势, 蛋白质含量显著升高而脂肪含量显著下降(P0.05)。饲料的蛋白质水平和投喂频率分别对大黄鱼幼鱼的肝脏指数(HSI)、内脏指数(VSI)和血清中的谷丙转氨酶(ALT)及谷草转氨酶(AST)均影响不显著(P0.05)。投喂频率对肝脏的ALT和AST的影响不显著(P0.05)。在同一投喂频率下, 肝脏ALT和AST均随着饲料蛋白质水平的增加而显著提高(P0.05)。饲料中的蛋白质水平和投喂频率对大黄鱼幼鱼的生长和FCR的影响存在显著的交互作用(P0.05), 而对血清和肝脏中的ALT和AST、HSI、VSI、肥满度(CF)以及体组成的影响均无交互作用。       

Effects of nutritional status on metabolic rate, exercise and recovery in a freshwater fish

The influence of feeding on swimming performance and exercise recovery in fish is poorly understood. Examining swimming behavior and physiological status following periods of feeding and fasting is important because wild fish often face periods of starvation. In the current study, researchers force fed and fasted groups of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) of similar sizes for a period of 16 days. Following this feeding and fasting period, fish were exercised for 60 s and monitored for swimming performance and physiological recovery. Resting metabolic rates were also determined. Fasted fish lost an average of 16 g (nearly 12%) of body mass, while force fed fish maintained body mass. Force fed fish swam 28% further and required nearly 14 s longer to tire during exercise. However, only some physiological conditions differed between feeding groups. Resting muscle glycogen concentrations was twofold greater in force fed fish, at rest and throughout recovery, although it decreased in both feeding treatments following exercise. Liver mass was nearly three times greater in force fed fish, and fasted fish had an average of 65% more cortisol throughout recovery. Similar recovery rates of most physiological responses were observed despite force fed fish having a metabolic rate 75% greater than fasted fish. Results are discussed as they relate to largemouth bass starvation in wild systems and how these physiological differences might be important in an evolutionary context.     

The relationships between specific dynamic action,nutrient retention and feed conversion ratio in farmed freshwater Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

Improving the feed conversion ratio (FCR; the amount of feed consumed relative to the amount of weight gain) can reduce both production costs and environmental impacts of farmed fish. The aim of this study was to investigate what drives FCR to understand how nutrients are retained, as well as the amount of oxygen consumed for digestion, absorption and assimilation (a metabolic process known as specific dynamic action, SDA). Feed-efficient and inefficient Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in fresh water were identified using ballotini beads and X-radiography that tracked individual feed intake across three assessment periods under satiated feeding. This allowed a comparison of physiological traits and body composition between the two FCR phenotypes over two time points as Chinook salmon grew from 305 to 620 g. Fish with higher daily feed intake (DFI) had higher daily weight gain (DWG) as expected. Nonetheless, the relationship between FCR and DFI as well as FCR and DWG was variable between time points. FCR and DWG were not correlated at the first time point and were negatively correlated at the second time point. In contrast, FCR and DFI were positively correlated at the first time point but not the second. Despite this, efficient fish ate smaller meals and retained more protein, lipid and energy in their body tissues. There was no detectable difference in metabolism between the two FCR phenotypes with respect to minimal resting metabolic rate, maximum metabolic rate, aerobic scope, or SDA parameters. In conclusion, FCR is not consistently associated with growth and metabolic differences in freshwater Chinook salmon, but FCR-efficient fish retain more nutrients and consume smaller meals.     

Compensatory growth in sub‐yearling Siberian sturgeon,Acipenser baerii Brandt, 1869: Effects of starvation and refeeding on growth,feed utilization and body composition

The capacity of sub‐yearling Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii Brandt, 1869) (19.7 ± 0.8 g) to show compensatory growth was assessed for a 40‐day period for the effects of short‐term starvation and refeeding on growth, feeding performance and body composition. After acclimation, 25 experimental fish were randomly distributed among twelve 500‐L cylindrical fiberglass tanks with a flow‐through system. The fish were subjected to four different feeding regimes: control, which was fed four times daily to apparent satiation; T₁: four periods of 2 days starvation alternating with 8 days re‐feeding; T₂: two periods of 4 days starvation alternating with 16 days refeeding; T₃: an 8 days starvation period followed by 32 days refeeding. At the end of the experiment, the deprived fish attained body weights comparable to those attained by the control fish. There were no differences in growth and feeding performances between the deprived and the control fish. Total protein and lipid contents of the control fish were significantly higher than that of T₁ and T₂ fish at the end of the experiment (P < 0.05). A significant difference in the energy content was observed between T₂ and the control. Siberian sturgeon exhibited complete compensation, indicating a high ability of the deprived fish to grow sufficiently to fully compensate for weight loss during starvation. The results suggested that the feeding schedule involving starvation–refeeding cycles could be a promising feed management option for the culture of this species.     

The structure of feeding behavior in a phytophagous insect (Hylobius abietis)

Analysis of the feeding behavior of animals using such a high temporal resolution that meals can be defined may improve our understanding of the mechanisms regulating feeding. Meals can be distinguished in an ethologically meaningful manner by using the ‘meal criterion’, the shortest non‐feeding interval between feeding bouts recognized as meals. However, such a criterion has only been determined for a few insect species. Applying a recent method developed for assessing meal criteria for vertebrates, we determined the meal criterion for Hylobius abietis (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) based on data from video recordings of single individuals feeding on seedlings of Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Pinaceae). The pine weevil is an economically important pest insect, because it feeds on the stem bark of planted conifer seedlings. Weevils had 4–5 meals per day. Each meal lasted about 24 min during which about 13 mm² of bark per meal were removed. Females had longer total meal durations and longer non‐feeding intervals within meals than males. Girdling seedlings did not affect the weevils' feeding properties. The size of meals was significantly correlated with the duration of non‐feeding intervals before and after them. This study is one of few describing the feeding behavior of an insect at a temporal resolution that allows individual meals to be distinguished. With more meal‐related data from insects available, differences in meal properties may be interpreted based on phylogeny, ecology, and physiology. Our results may also assist in the setup and interpretation of studies of plant‐insect interactions, and facilitate the evaluation and development of methods to protect plants against herbivores.     

Assessment of growth characteristics,the survival rate and body composition of Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) under different feeding rates in closed aquaculture system

One of the essential factors to be addressed in the development of aquaculture is the feeding regime. This study was investigated to assess the effects of feeding rate on growth performance, feed utilization, chemical body composition survival rate, cannibalism and morphological indices of Asian Seabass, Lates calcarifer. Intended for the trial, one hundred forty sea bass individuals with an average weight 5.47 ± 0.11 g were randomly distributed in 4 concrete tanks (914 cm × 183 cm 122 cm) each; length × width × depth) and volume 18,399 L, for total 68 days. The fishes were fed with a pelleted diet containing 46% crude protein for different feeding groups designated as (T1, T2, T3 and T4). The feed was supplied with a rate of (T1) 3%, (T2) 4%, (T3) 6%, and (T4) 9% of fish biomass per day and feeding frequency were maintained three times per day to all the groups. At the end of the trial water physicochemical parameters was in acceptable range for Asian sea bass growth. The average daily weight gain (g), weight gain (g) and specific growth rate (%) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in T3 and T4 as compared to T1 and T2 group. The poorest feed conversion ratio was recorded in T1 group with 3% biomass per day. The cannibalism rate was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in T1 (3%) compared to T3 and T4 treatment. The morphological indices, condition factors (CF), viscerosomatic index and hepatosomatic index (HSI) was significantly higher in T4 group as compared to other treatments. The protein, moisture and ash contents of the whole biomass of the Asian sea bass were not significantly influenced by feeding rate. The fat levels in the fish bodies increased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing feeding ratio. The phenomenal regression indicates that 6.5% feeding rate per day is optimum for best growth performance, survival and minimum cannibalism rate for Asian sea bass in captivity. The outcome of the finding will help in promotion for not only the coastal aquaculture in Pakistan abut also elsewhere.     

The effect of feeding hierarchy on individual variability in daily feeding of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

Three groups of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss , (initial weight 40 g) were fed one of three rations (low, medium or high) for 73 days. Consumption by individual fish within the three ration groups was measured on four occasions (days 27, 55, 64 and 72) using radiography. Food intake by individual fish varied between days and this variability was expressed using the coefficient of variation (CV). Dominant fish within each ration group were defined as individuals with the greater share of the group meal and these fish had low CVs for food intake indicating relatively little variation in daily consumption. By contrast, the fish which had consumed a low mean proportion of the group meal displayed high CVs for food intake, indicating considerable variability in the sizes of individual meals consumed by these fish. As group ration increased, the range of meal sizes and individual CVs in daily feeding decreased, suggesting that the strength of the feeding hierarchy and the variability in individual consumption decreased as food availability increased. It is suggested that radiography can be used to assess social relationships within groups of fish allowing the assessment of feeding hierarchies in larger groups of fish than would be possible by observational techniques.