Using Qualitative Disease Risk Analysis for Herpetofauna Conservation Translocations Transgressing Ecological and Geographical Barriers

Through the exploration of disease risk analysis methods employed for four different UK herpetofauna translocations, we illustrate how disease hazards can be identified, and how the risk of disease can be analysed. Where ecological or geographical barriers between source and destination sites exist, parasite populations are likely to differ in identity or strain between the two sites, elevating the risk from disease and increasing the number and category of hazards requiring analysis. Simplification of the translocation pathway through the avoidance of these barriers reduces the risk from disease. The disease risk analysis tool is intended to aid conservation practitioners in decision making relating to disease hazards prior to implementation of a translocation.

     

Biosecurity for Translocations: Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus), Fisher’s Estuarine Moth (Gortyna borelii lunata), Short-Haired Bumblebee (Bombus subterraneus) and Pool Frog (Pelophylax lessonae) Translocations as Case Studies

Exposure to parasites in conservation translocations increases the risks to recipient and translocated populations from disease, and therefore there has been interest in implementing biosecurity methods. Using four case examples we described how biosecurity was applied in practical translocation scenarios prior to and during a translocation and also post-release. We implemented biosecurity, including quarantine barriers, at specific points in the translocation pathway where hazards, identified by the disease risk analysis, had the potential to induce disease. Evidence that biosecurity protected translocated and recipient populations, included an absence of mortality associated with high-risk non-native parasites, a reduction in mortality associated with endemic parasites, the absence of high-risk pathogenic parasites, or associated diseases, at the destination; and the apparent absence of diseases in closely related species at the destination site. The biosecurity protocols did not alter the level or duration of translocated species confinement and therefore probably did not act as a stressor. There is a monetary cost involved in biosecurity but the epidemiological evidence suggests that conservation translocation managers should carefully consider its use. Breakdowns in quarantine have occurred in human hospitals despite considerable investment and training for health professionals, and we therefore judge that there is a need for training in the objectives and maintenance of quarantine barriers in conservation translocations. Biosecurity protocols for conservation translocations should be continually updated in response to findings from disease risk analysis and post-release disease surveillance and we recommend further studies to evaluate their effectiveness.

     

A Comparison of Disease Risk Analysis Tools for Conservation Translocations

Conservation translocations are increasingly used to manage threatened species and restore ecosystems. Translocations increase the risk of disease outbreaks in the translocated and recipient populations. Qualitative disease risk analyses have been used as a means of assessing the magnitude of any effect of disease and the probability of the disease occurring associated with a translocation. Currently multiple alternative qualitative disease risk analysis packages are available to practitioners. Here we compare the ease of use, expertise required, transparency, and results from, three different qualitative disease risk analyses using a translocation of the endangered New Zealand passerine, the hihi (Notiomystis cincta), as a model. We show that the three methods use fundamentally different approaches to define hazards. Different methods are used to produce estimations of the risk from disease, and the estimations are different for the same hazards. Transparency of the process varies between methods from no referencing, or explanations of evidence to justify decisions, through to full documentation of resources, decisions and assumptions made. Evidence to support decisions on estimation of risk from disease is important, to enable knowledge acquired in the future, for example, from translocation outcome, to be used to improve the risk estimation for future translocations. Information documenting each disease risk analysis differs along with variation in emphasis of the questions asked within each package. The expertise required to commence a disease risk analysis varies and an action flow chart tailored for the non-wildlife health specialist are included in one method but completion of the disease risk analysis requires wildlife health specialists with epidemiological and pathological knowledge in all three methods. We show that disease risk analysis package choice may play a greater role in the overall risk estimation of the effect of disease on animal populations involved in a translocation than might previously have been realised.

     

A Comparison of Disease Risk Analysis Tools for Conservation Translocations

Conservation translocations are increasingly used to manage threatened species and restore ecosystems. Translocations increase the risk of disease outbreaks in the translocated and recipient populations. Qualitative disease risk analyses have been used as a means of assessing the magnitude of any effect of disease and the probability of the disease occurring associated with a translocation. Currently multiple alternative qualitative disease risk analysis packages are available to practitioners. Here we compare the ease of use, expertise required, transparency, and results from, three different qualitative disease risk analyses using a translocation of the endangered New Zealand passerine, the hihi (Notiomystis cincta), as a model. We show that the three methods use fundamentally different approaches to define hazards. Different methods are used to produce estimations of the risk from disease, and the estimations are different for the same hazards. Transparency of the process varies between methods from no referencing, or explanations of evidence to justify decisions, through to full documentation of resources, decisions and assumptions made. Evidence to support decisions on estimation of risk from disease is important, to enable knowledge acquired in the future, for example, from translocation outcome, to be used to improve the risk estimation for future translocations. Information documenting each disease risk analysis differs along with variation in emphasis of the questions asked within each package. The expertise required to commence a disease risk analysis varies and an action flow chart tailored for the non-wildlife health specialist are included in one method but completion of the disease risk analysis requires wildlife health specialists with epidemiological and pathological knowledge in all three methods. We show that disease risk analysis package choice may play a greater role in the overall risk estimation of the effect of disease on animal populations involved in a translocation than might previously have been realised.     

SLE - Practical and theoretical barriers to the prevention of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus

Accelerated atherosclerotic vascular disease (ASVD) is a major cause of death in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Although many authorities are calling for aggressive assessment and management of cardiac risk factors in patients with SLE, both theoretical and practical barriers to this approach exist. It seems that SLE and/or its treatment are themselves strong risk factors for the development of ASVD and it is unclear how much this risk can be decreased by the control of traditional risk factors. Studies from several centers have shown that suboptimal risk factor management and barriers to acceptance of these measures must also be studied further.     

Cross-Cultural and Site-Based Influences on Demographic, Well-being, and Social Network Predictors of Risk Perception in Hazard and Disaster Settings in Ecuador and Mexico

Although virtually all comparative research about risk perception focuses on which hazards are of concern to people in different culture groups, much can be gained by focusing on predictors of levels of risk perception in various countries and places. In this case, we examine standard and novel predictors of risk perception in seven sites among communities affected by a flood in Mexico (one site) and volcanic eruptions in Mexico (one site) and Ecuador (five sites). We conducted more than 450 interviews with questions about how people feel at the time (after the disaster) regarding what happened in the past, their current concerns, and their expectations for the future. We explore how aspects of the context in which people live have an effect on how strongly people perceive natural hazards in relationship with demographic, well-being, and social network factors. Generally, our research indicates that levels of risk perception for past, present, and future aspects of a specific hazard are similar across these two countries and seven sites. However, these contexts produced different predictors of risk perception—in other words, there was little overlap between sites in the variables that predicted the past, present, or future aspects of risk perception in each site. Generally, current stress was related to perception of past danger of an event in the Mexican sites, but not in Ecuador; network variables were mainly important for perception of past danger (rather than future or present danger), although specific network correlates varied from site to site across the countries.     

Desert bighorn sheep habitat selection,group size,and mountain lion predation risk

Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) evolved for thousands of years in the presence of numerous predators, including mountain lions (Puma concolor). Bighorn sheep have presumably developed predator avoidance strategies; however, the effectiveness of these strategies in reducing risk of mountain lion predation is not well understood. These strategies are of increasing interest because mountain lion predation on bighorn sheep has been identified as a leading cause of mortality in some sheep populations. Therefore, we investigated how mountain lions affect both bighorn sheep habitat selection and risk of mortality in Arizona, USA. We used 2 approaches to investigate the predator-prey relationship between mountain lions and bighorn sheep. We fit 103 bighorn sheep (81 females and 22 males) with global positioning system radio-collars in 2 Arizona populations from 2013 to 2017, and used a negative binomial resource selection probability function to evaluate whether bighorn sheep selected for habitat features in accordance with presumed predator avoidance strategies, including terrain ruggedness, slope, topographic position, and horizontal obstruction, in 2 seasons (winter and summer). We then estimated how habitat features such as terrain ruggedness, slope, horizontal obstruction, and group size, influence the risk of mortality due to mountain lion predation using an Andersen-Gill proportional hazards model. Generally, both sexes selected areas with lower horizontal obstruction and intermediate ruggedness and slope, but selection patterns differed between seasons and sexes. The use of more rugged areas and steeper slopes decreased the risk of mortality due to mountain lion predation, consistent with presumed predator avoidance strategies. Increased group size decreased risk of bighorn sheep mortality due to mountain lion predation but this effect became marginal at approximately 10 individuals/group. We did not identify a relationship between horizontal obstruction and bighorn sheep mortality risk. Our findings can be used in habitat and population management decisions such as the prioritization of habitat restoration sites or selection of translocation sites. In addition, we suggest that augmentation of low-density bighorn sheep populations may reduce mountain lion predation risk by increasing group size, and that releasing large groups of bighorn sheep in population augmentation and reintroduction efforts may help to reduce mountain lion predation.     

Beyond the Hazard: The Role of Beliefs in Health Risk Perception

This article addresses how beliefs about health risks cluster and how these relate to perceptions of risk among Canadians. A principal components analysis conducted on items reflecting various beliefs from the Canadian National Health Risk Perception Survey extracted four underlying dimensions: Cancer Dread, Trust in Regulators, Environmental Concern, and Personal Agency. Factor scores were then used to investigate relationships between belief factors and the perceived health risk of various hazards with gender, education, income, and province of residence as covariates. Environmental and Therapeutic health risk perceptions were significantly higher in respondents with high Cancer Dread and high Environmental Concern, but lower in respondents with high Trust in Regulators. Environmental health risk perceptions were lower in respondents with high Personal Agency, whereas Social health risk perceptions were higher in respondents with high Cancer Dread and Personal Agency. Results suggest that information about health risk–related beliefs can be useful in improving our understanding of the public's perceived risk of health hazards.     

Streamlining Disease Risk Analysis for Wildlife Using the Shark Bay Bandicoot as a Model

Disease risk analysis (DRA) is a process for identifying significant disease risks and proposing measures to mitigate those risks. Although numerous methodologies for DRA exist, the IUCN Disease Risk Analysis Manual Jakob-Hoff et al. (World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, pp 160, 2014) remains the gold standard for wild animal translocations. In some cases, however, constraints of time or resources demand compromises on the ideal methodology, and a cost–benefit assessment is required to determine the best approach. We propose a methodology modified from Jakob-Hoff et al. (World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, pp 160, 2014) and Sainsbury and Vaughan-Higgins (Conserv Biol 26:442–452, 2012), using translocations of the Shark Bay bandicoot (SBB) (Perameles bougainville) as an example. In this study, 44 hazards were identified and described for Peramelidae species. We used hazard prioritization and “scoping” to develop a shortlist of hazards for detailed risk assessment, which excluded 35 of these hazards from further assessment. This approach enabled timely, efficient and cost-effective completion of the DRA while maintaining transparent evaluation of all disease risks. We developed a disease risk management strategy for SBB based on structured, evidence-based analysis of current information and established biosecurity practices and disease screening recommendations for future translocations. Our approach demonstrates a practical process for DRA and risk mitigation, which delivered management outcomes despite limited resources, variable knowledge of disease epidemiology and uncertain translocation pathways for the target species. Limitations are acknowledged, and further research will aim to objectively test this methodology compared to other available methods.

     

Reviewing the ecological evidence base for management of emerging tropical zoonoses: Kyasanur Forest Disease in India as a case study

Zoonoses disproportionately affect tropical communities and are associated with human modification and use of ecosystems. Effective management is hampered by poor ecological understanding of disease transmission and often focuses on human vaccination or treatment. Better ecological understanding of multi-vector and multi-host transmission, social and environmental factors altering human exposure, might enable a broader suite of management options. Options may include “ecological interventions” that target vectors or hosts and require good knowledge of underlying transmission processes, which may be more effective, economical, and long lasting than conventional approaches. New frameworks identify the hierarchical series of barriers that a pathogen needs to overcome before human spillover occurs and demonstrate how ecological interventions may strengthen these barriers and complement human-focused disease control. We extend these frameworks for vector-borne zoonoses, focusing on Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus (KFDV), a tick-borne, neglected zoonosis affecting poor forest communities in India, involving complex communities of tick and host species. We identify the hierarchical barriers to pathogen transmission targeted by existing management. We show that existing interventions mainly focus on human barriers (via personal protection and vaccination) or at barriers relating to Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) vectors (tick control on cattle and at the sites of host (monkey) deaths). We review the validity of existing management guidance for KFD through literature review and interviews with disease managers. Efficacy of interventions was difficult to quantify due to poor empirical understanding of KFDV–vector–host ecology, particularly the role of cattle and monkeys in the disease transmission cycle. Cattle are hypothesised to amplify tick populations. Monkeys may act as sentinels of human infection or are hypothesised to act as amplifying hosts for KFDV, but the spatial scale of risk arising from ticks infected via monkeys versus small mammal reservoirs is unclear. We identified 19 urgent research priorities for refinement of current management strategies or development of ecological interventions targeting vectors and host barriers to prevent disease spillover in the future.     

DNA Translocation and Unzipping through a Nanopore: Some Geometrical Effects

This article explores the role of some geometrical factors on the electrophoretically driven translocations of macromolecules through nanopores. In the case of asymmetric pores, we show how the entry requirements and the direction of translocation can modify the information content of the blocked ionic current as well as the transduction of the electrophoretic drive into a mechanical force. To address these effects we studied the translocation of single-stranded DNA through an asymmetric α-hemolysin pore. Depending on the direction of the translocation, we measure the capacity of the pore to discriminate between both DNA orientations. By unzipping DNA hairpins from both sides of the pores we show that the presence of single strand or double strand in the pore can be discriminated based on ionic current levels. We also show that the transduction of the electrophoretic drive into a denaturing mechanical force depends on the local geometry of the pore entrance. Eventually we discuss the application of this work to the measurement of energy barriers for DNA unzipping as well as for protein binding and unfolding.     

Human behavioral influences and milk quality control programs

Mastitis is a major disease affecting the herds of dairy farmers worldwide. One of the indicators directly related to the widespread infection of this disease in herds is the bulk tank somatic cell count (BTSCC). Recent studies have shown that one of the risk factors associated with mastitis is the human factor. Therefore, understanding the influence of humans is essential to control and prevent the disease. The main goal of this study was to determine whether the motivations and barriers perceived by farmers could explain the variation in the BTSCC. This study was conducted at 75 dairy farms in southern Brazil. In the interviews with farmers, a survey based on Likert scale items was used to collect data. Structural equation models were used to explain the subjectivity in the ratio of observed variables and latent variables elucidating the possible causal relationships between the variables. The model indicated that some of the variation in the BTSCC can be explained by the farmer’s behavior, which is elucidated by his/her motivations and barriers. The correlations between motivations and the BTSCC and between barriers and the BTSCC were positive. These findings suggest that variations in the BTSCC can be explained by the motivations and barriers perceived by farmers and that the Fogg Behavior Model used in this study can be used to explain how human behaviors influence mastitis control. This study also indicates that consulting companies focused on improving milk quality should pay attention to the human factor to reduce these barriers.     

Mitochondrial precursor proteins are imported through a hydrophilic membrane environment

We have analyzed how translocation intermediates of imported mitochondrial precursor proteins, which span contact sites, interact with the mitochondrial membranes. F1-ATPase subunit beta (F1 beta) was trapped at contact sites by importing it into Neurospora mitochondria in the presence of low levels of nucleoside triphosphates. This F1 beta translocation intermediate could be extracted from the membranes by treatment with protein denaturants such as alkaline pH or urea. By performing import at low temperatures, the ADP/ATP carrier was accumulated in contact sites of Neurospora mitochondria and cytochrome b2 in contact sites of yeast mitochondria. These translocation intermediates were also extractable from the membranes at alkaline pH. Thus, translocation of precursor proteins across mitochondrial membranes seems to occur through an environment which is accessible to aqueous perturbants. We propose that proteinaceous structures are essential components of a translocation apparatus present in contact sites.     

A method to determine when active translocation of nonhuman primates is justified

This article addresses translocation, or artificial dispersal, the movement of one or more organisms from one location to another, and focuses on the decisions to be made before translocation begins. Scientific, economic, or pragmatic reasons such as pest removal or conservation of biodiversity may account for undertaking translocation. When is translocation ethical, and how can that decision be determined? This article provides one quantitative and utilitarian method for evaluating these questions. Although this analysis may apply to any nonhuman species for which costs and benefits can be assessed, the examples in this article derive from the nonhuman primate literature.     

A Method to Determine When Active Translocation of Nonhuman Primates Is Justified

This article addresses translocation, or artificial dispersal, the movement of one or more organisms from one location to another, and focuses on the decisions to be made before translocation begins. Scientific, economic, or pragmatic reasons such as pest removal or conservation of biodiversity may account for undertaking translocation. When is translocation ethical, and how can that decision be determined? This article provides one quantitative and utilitarian method for evaluating these questions. Although this analysis may apply to any nonhuman species for which costs and benefits can be assessed, the examples in this article derive from the nonhuman primate literature.     

Weight calibration to improve the efficiency of pure risk estimates from case-control samples nested in a cohort

Cohort studies provide information on relative hazards and pure risks of disease. For rare outcomes, large cohorts are needed to have sufficient numbers of events, making it costly to obtain covariate information on all cohort members. We focus on nested case-control designs that are used to estimate relative hazard in the Cox regression model. In 1997, Langholz and Borgan showed that pure risk can also be estimated from nested case-control data. However, these approaches do not take advantage of some covariates that may be available on all cohort members. Researchers have used weight calibration to increase the efficiency of relative hazard estimates from case-cohort studies and nested cased-control studies. Our objective is to extend weight calibration approaches to nested case-control designs to improve precision of estimates of relative hazards and pure risks. We show that calibrating sample weights additionally against follow-up times multiplied by relative hazards during the risk projection period improves estimates of pure risk. Efficiency improvements for relative hazards for variables that are available on the entire cohort also contribute to improved efficiency for pure risks. We develop explicit variance formulas for the weight-calibrated estimates. Simulations show how much precision is improved by calibration and confirm the validity of inference based on asymptotic normality. Examples are provided using data from the American Association of Retired Persons Diet and Health Cohort Study.     

GLUT4 translocation: the last 200 nanometers

Insulin regulates circulating glucose levels by suppressing hepatic glucose production and increasing glucose transport into muscle and adipose tissues. Defects in these processes are associated with elevated vascular glucose levels and can lead to increased risk for the development of Type 2 diabetes mellitus and its associated disease complications. At the cellular level, insulin stimulates glucose uptake by inducing the translocation of the glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) from intracellular storage sites to the plasma membrane, where the transporter facilitates the diffusion of glucose into striated muscle and adipocytes. Although the immediate downstream molecules that function proximal to the activated insulin receptor have been relatively well-characterized, it remains unknown how the distal insulin-signaling cascade interfaces with and recruits GLUT4 to the cell surface. New biochemical assays and imaging techniques, however, have focused attention on the plasma membrane as a potential target of insulin action leading to GLUT4 translocation. Indeed, it now appears that insulin specifically regulates the docking and/or fusion of GLUT4-vesicles with the plasma membrane. Future work will focus on identifying the key insulin targets that regulate the GLUT4 docking/fusion processes.     

Do viruses use vectors to penetrate mucus barriers?

I propose a mechanism by which viruses successfully infect new individuals, despite being immotile particles with no ability for directed movement. Within cells, viral particle movements are directed by motors and elements of the cytoskeleton, but how viruses cross extracellular barriers, like mucus, remains a mystery. I propose that viruses cross these barriers by hitch-hiking on bacteria or sperm cells which can transport themselves across mucosal layers designed to protect the underlying cells from pathogen attack. An important implication of this hypothesis is that agents that block interactions between viruses and bacteria or sperm may be new tools for disease prevention.