Grating orientation as a measure of tactile spatial acuity

Recent studies have used grating orientation as a measure of tactile spatial acuity on the fingerpad. In this task subjects identify the orientation of a grooved surface presented in either the proximal-distal or lateral-medial orientation. Other recent results have suggested that there might be a substantial anisotropy on the fingerpad related to spatial sensitivity. This anisotropy was revealed using a task in which subjects discriminated between a smooth and a grooved surface presented at different orientations on the fingerpad. The anisotropy was substantial enough that it might permit subjects to discriminate grating orientation on the basis of intensive rather than spatial cues. The present study examined the possibility that anisotropy on the fingerpad might provide cues in a spatial acuity task. The ability of subjects to discriminate between a smooth and a grooved surface was measured under conditions that are typically used in grating orientation tasks. No evidence of anisotropy was found. Also, using a grating orientation task, separate estimates were made of sensitivity in the proximal-distal and lateral-medial orientations. Again no evidence of anisotropy was found. Consistent with changes in the density of innervation, grating orientation sensitivity was found to vary as a function of location on the fingerpad. The results support the view that grating orientation is a valid measure of spatial acuity reflecting underlying neural, spatial mechanisms.     

Assessment of spatial acuity at the fingertip with grating (JVP) domes: validity for use in an elderly population

JVP domes are of a set of small grating surfaces recently introduced for cutaneous spatial resolution measurement. The gratings are placed on the skin and subjects are required to identify the orientation of grooves and bars. The finest grating whose orientations are discriminated reliably (75% correct) provides an estimate of the spatial resolution limit in the tested area. In the present study, we sought to determine the capacity of elderly subjects to resolve such grating stimuli in order to obtain normative data for this population. Thirty-two elderly individuals in good health (range: 60-88 years) were assessed for their ability to perceive grating orientation at the tip of the dominant index finger. Testing proceeded from the widest grating dome (3 mm) to the next (e.g., 2 mm), until the performance level dropped below 75% correct discrimination. The grating orientation task proved to be very difficult for most subjects and only a minority (14/32) was able to provide reliable reports of grating orientation even with presentation of the widest dome available (3 mm). Accordingly, individual grating resolution thresholds were often considerably higher (>2.5 mm, n = 26) than values previously reported in young adults for the fingertip region (approximately 1 mm). These results suggest that the current set of grating domes may not be adequate for spatial acuity measurement at the fingertip of older adults. New larger grating dimensions should be added to the set presently available to improve their sensitivity for an older population.     

A four-channel analysis of the tactile sensitivity of the fingertip: frequency selectivity,spatial summation,and temporal summation

Thresholds were measured for the detection of vibratory stimuli of variable frequency and duration applied to the index fingertip and thenar eminence through contactors of different sizes. The effects of stimulus frequency could be accounted for by the frequency characteristics of the Pacinian (P), non-Pacinian (NP) I, and NP III channels previously determined for the thenar eminence (Bolanowski et al., J Acoust Soc Am 84 : 1680-1694, 1988; Gescheider et al., Somatosens Mot Res 18: 191- 201, 2001). The effect of changing stimulus duration was also essentially identical for both sites, demonstrating the same amount of temporal summation in the P channel. Although the effect of changing stimulus frequency and changing stimulus duration did not differ for the two sites, the effect of varying the size of the stimulus was significantly greater for the thenar eminence than for the fingertip. The attenuated amount of spatial summation on the fingertip was interpreted as an indication that the mechanism of spatial summation consists of the operations of both neural integration and probability summation.     

Subjective magnitude of tactile roughness

The subjective experience of tactile roughness was judged by subjects using the method of absolute magnitude estimation (AME). The stimuli were 11 grades of sandpaper having particle diameters ranging from 16 to 905 mum. All of the estimates resulted in power functions when assigned numbers were plotted as a function of particle diameter. It was determined that on the finger pad of the index finger and the thumb there was no difference between the active and passive modes of stimulation and that there was no difference in roughness estimates made on the finger and on the thumb. When the finger and thumb were stimulated simultaneously, higher numbers were assigned for a given stimulus indicating the presence of a form of spatial summation at these sites. The pleasantness of the tactile sensation, as assessed using AME, was inversely related to the roughness estimates. Furthermore, hydration of the stratum corneum with water and three concentrations of surfactant solutions reduced the sensation of roughness below that of normally hydrated skin.     

The frequency selectivity of information-processing channels in the tactile sensory system

The frequency selectivity of the P, NP I, and NP II channels of the four-channel model of mechanoreception for glabrous skin was measured psychophysically by an adaptation tuning curve procedure. The results substantially extend the frequency range over which the frequency selectivity of these channels is known and further confirm the hypothesis that the input stage of each of these channels consists of specific sensory nerve fibers and associated receptors. Specifically, the frequency characteristics of Pacinian nerve fibers, rapidly adapting (RA) nerve fibers, and slowly adapting Type II (SA II) nerve fibers were found to be the peripheral neurophysiological correlates of the P, NP I, and NP II channels, respectively. The finding that the tuning characteristic for a test stimulus of 250 Hz delivered through a small (0.008 cm²) contactor depended dramatically on the duration of the test stimulus whereas the detection threshold did not, provides new evidence in support of the hypothesis that separate NP II and P channels exist.     

Signaling of Ankle Joint Position by Receptors in Different Muscles

Plots were made of multiunit activity versus ankle joint position for receptors in each of the 12 muscles crossing the cat ankle joint, except peroneus tertius, by recording from populations of afferent fibers in muscle nerves. The discharge was measured 15 or 30 sec after terminating the movements that altered the position of the joint. These recordings were dominated by large-spike activity that would be expected to originate mainly from primary spindle endings. Seven of the 12 muscles also cross other joints. Their responses at a given ankle joint position were so altered by changes in the position of the knee or toe joints that they could not reliably signal the position of the ankle joint. As judged from multiunit recording, receptors in each of the five muscles specific to the ankle joint were influenced by more than one axis of ankle joint displacement.

Single-unit recording from dorsal root filaments was used to determine whether primary or secondary spindle receptors in soleus and tibialis anterior could selectively signal one axis of ankle joint rotation. Individual soleus receptors were tested both on the flexion extension axis and with a combined adduction–eversion movement.

For 38 of the 70 soleus receptors examined (54%), firm adduction–eversion produced a level of activity greater than that caused by 10° of flexion, and for 77% the level of activity was greater than that caused by 5° of flexion. For 168 of the 184 tibialis anterior receptors studied (91%), firm abduction inversion produced a level of activity greater than that caused by 10° of extension. Thus few receptors were found that responded exclusively to one axis of rotation.

One way in which the position of the ankle joint could be specified in the face of multiaxial receptor activity is by examining the receptor discharge from more than one muscle. A suggestion for how the nervous system might do this is given in the discussion.     

Tactile sensitivity,tactile acuity,and affective touch: from childhood to early adolescence

The development of somatosensation and affective touch acquires a central role throughout our lives, for several reasons. In adults, these functions are driven by different, neuroanatomically and functionally segregated fibres. To date, very little is known about the basic features of these fibres in childhood and this lack of knowledge is mirrored in the affective touch domain, where there are no studies on the main physiological features of the tactile processes linked to the stimulation of the hairy skin, namely the preferential site of affective touch. Thus, our study aims to analyze (1) tactile sensitivity and tactile acuity of children’s hairy forearms; (2) a possible dissociation between somatosensation and the affective touch; and (3) the presence/absence of the perception of affective touch already in childhood. To these aims, participants (160 children, aged 6 to 14?years), were administered with the Von Frey (tactile sensitivity) and the 2 Point Discrimination (tactile acuity) tests. Affective touch was measured following the classic protocol and pleasantness ratings were recorded. Our findings showed a correlation between age and somatosensation, suggesting a progressive reduction of sensitivity and acuity as age grows. Further, there was no overlap between affective touch and somatosensation, suggesting a behavioural segregation. Lastly, we found higher pleasantness ratings for Affective versus Neutral stimulations at all ages and an enhanced preference for Affective as age grows. We concluded that both somatosensation and affective touch are already present as two separate components of touch in childhood and change as a function of age.     

Short-term visual deprivation does not enhance passive tactile spatial acuity

An important unresolved question in sensory neuroscience is whether, and if so with what time course, tactile perception is enhanced by visual deprivation. In three experiments involving 158 normally sighted human participants, we assessed whether tactile spatial acuity improves with short-term visual deprivation over periods ranging from under 10 to over 110 minutes. We used an automated, precisely controlled two-interval forced-choice grating orientation task to assess each participant's ability to discern the orientation of square-wave gratings pressed against the stationary index finger pad of the dominant hand. A two-down one-up staircase (Experiment 1) or a Bayesian adaptive procedure (Experiments 2 and 3) was used to determine the groove width of the grating whose orientation each participant could reliably discriminate. The experiments consistently showed that tactile grating orientation discrimination does not improve with short-term visual deprivation. In fact, we found that tactile performance degraded slightly but significantly upon a brief period of visual deprivation (Experiment 1) and did not improve over periods of up to 110 minutes of deprivation (Experiments 2 and 3). The results additionally showed that grating orientation discrimination tends to improve upon repeated testing, and confirmed that women significantly outperform men on the grating orientation task. We conclude that, contrary to two recent reports but consistent with an earlier literature, passive tactile spatial acuity is not enhanced by short-term visual deprivation. Our findings have important theoretical and practical implications. On the theoretical side, the findings set limits on the time course over which neural mechanisms such as crossmodal plasticity may operate to drive sensory changes; on the practical side, the findings suggest that researchers who compare tactile acuity of blind and sighted participants should not blindfold the sighted participants.     

Tactile perception and manual dexterity in computer users

Recent studies suggest that sensory input generated during highly repetitive tasks can degrade the sensory representation of the hand and eventually lead to sensory and motor problems. In this study, we investigated whether early changes in tactile perception and manual dexterity could be detected in persons exposed to computer tasks. Performance in tests designed to assess tactile perception (grating orientation task for spatial acuity and roughness discrimination) and manual dexterity (grooved pegboard test) was compared between two groups of healthy individuals, matched for age, gender, and experience, who differed in terms of computer habits. One group consisted of frequent users (FU, > 2 h/day, n = 36) and the other of non or occasional users (OU, < 2 h/day, n = 28). Comparison of performance between groups with subjects sorted by gender revealed significant differences ( t -test, p < 0.05) in female, but not male, participants. Grating resolution thresholds at the tip on the second and fifth digits were, on average, 40% higher in female FU ( n = 13) than in female OU ( n = 10) and performance scores on the dexterity test were significantly higher for the left hand. The results of this study indicate that early signs of deterioration in hand function can be present in persons constantly exposed to computer tasks and that these signs are more readily apparent in women than in men. The loss of tactile spatial acuity found in female FU possibly reflect an early consequence of the degraded sensory representation of the hand resulting from constant repetitions of fine motor tasks.     

Age-related changes in tactile spatial resolution from 6 to 16 years old

The aim of this study was to determine age-related changes in tactile spatial resolution from 6 to 16 years old. Two hundred and twenty-two healthy children (105 boys and 117 girls) were assessed. The tactile spatial resolution threshold was determined using a classic set of JVP domes with a procedure adapted for children. Preadolescence appears to be an important step in tactile spatial resolution since children aged between 6 and 9 years old had a worse tactile spatial resolution than older children. Both peripheral and central explanations for this improvement of tactile spatial resolution with age are considered. The authors suggest that cortical maturational processes are likely to explain the better results of older children.     

Factors affecting egg predation in Black-tailed Gulls

In colonial seabirds, nesting density, egg-laying date and nest microhabitat affect the probability of eggs being taken by avian predators. Jungle Crows (Corvus macrorhynchos) are dominant predators of eggs of Black-tailed Gulls (Larus crassirostris). Factors affecting the probability of gulls allowing the crows to attack their nests or depredate their eggs and the probability of eggs being taken were studied by direct observation and egg census, respectively. The effect of vegetation heights, position in the colony, egg-laying date and neighbour nests on the probability of eggs being taken were examined at multiple spatial scales. Gull nests were depredated more easily by larger groups of crows. Nests in peripheral areas (<4 m from the edge of the colony) were also depredated more easily by the crows walking on the ground. Although the nests where eggs were laid early in the season were depredated more frequently, such nests highly synchronised in egg laying within a <2-m radius were less likely to be depredated than less-synchronised nests. The nests in tall vegetation were less likely to be depredated though those having neighbour nests in tall vegetation were not. The number of neighbour nests did not affect the probability of eggs being taken. Antipredation effects of nesting microhabitats vary with spatial scales at which the crows search and attack the nests of gulls.     

A spatial simulation model for vegetation dynamics

A fine-resolution, spatially explicit, stochastic model was developed to simulate the dynamics of species cover abundance and pattern in a single vegetation layer wherein neighbouring individuals are assumed to compete for growing space. Each species in the model is characterized by a small number of morphological and life-history parameters, which enter into equations that stand for a minimal set of vegetation processes. The model performed well in reproducing post-fire successional trends among the three codominant dwarf shrubs in a Dutch heathland community as recorded in an annually mapped permanent quadrat. Program inputs, outputs and an example of sensitivity analysis are illustrated. With suitable changes, the model could potentially describe any plant community in which the vertical structure is simple and community dynamics are determined by spatial interactions among neighbouring plants.Jacques de Smidt provided data, information and stimulus for this project. The model was developed during ICP's visit to Utrecht, arranged by Marinus Werger and financed by The Netherlands Science Research Council (ZWO). We also thank David Glenn-Lewin and Ernst Lippe for discussion and cooperation.     

Factors affecting the spatial distribution of natural populations of Octopus joubini robson

Observations were made on the density and distribution of Octopus joubini in its natural environment. The average density of octopuses was 1/33 m² but their distribution was clumped. This distribution correlated significantly with the distribution of molluscan shells in which they hid. In addition, octopuses were attracted to sites that had been enriched with extra empty gastropod shells. Since site stability was not observed and they were not repelled from one another when placed at a high density, octopuses were probably not spaced by social pressure. Small crab species, the normal prey of O. joubini, were at a very high density of 30/m², and food abundance probably did not limit octopus number. The main factor affecting distribution of this population of octopuses may be predator pressure acting through the availability of places to hide.     

Factors affecting species richness of tree regeneration in mixed‐wood stands of central Maine

Question: Two questions about within‐stand spatial variability are addressed in this paper. How does species richness of tree regeneration respond to small‐scale ecological gradients, and what effect does natural Abies balsamea abundance have on the species richness of other tree regeneration? Location: A long‐term, gap‐silviculture experiment, Acadian mixed‐wood forest, Maine, USA. Methods: Eight stands treated with and without gap harvesting were sampled to capture sub‐stand heterogeneity of understorey tree regeneration concurrently with patterning of local stand conditions. Spatial and non‐spatial models were developed to test the relationships between two response variables [species richness of small (height ≥0.1 m, but <0.75 m) and large (height ≥0.75 m, but <1.4 m) regeneration] and five explanatory variables (depth to water table, percentage canopy transmittance, A. balsamea regeneration density, and overstorey basal area and species richness). Results: Despite high unexplained variance for all models, consistent associations among variables were found. Negative associations were found between: (1) the species richness of small regeneration and A. balsamea regeneration density and (2) the species richness of large regeneration and overstorey basal area. Positive associations were found between: (1) the species richness of small regeneration and both overstorey basal area and species richness and (2) the species richness of small and large regeneration and canopy transmittance. Conclusions: Promoting tree species diversity in Acadian mixed‐wood stands may not be achievable through the use of gap‐harvesting alone if the density of understorey Abies balsamea is not reduced either naturally or through silvicultural intervention.     

Factors affecting breeding habitat selection in a cliff-nesting peregrine Falco peregrinus population

We studied factors affecting breeding habitat selection in a population of cliff-nesting peregrines Falco peregrinus across multiple spatial levels (cliff site, cliff context and land-use of the surrounding landscape), over a 2,100 km² study area in the Alps (Italy and Switzerland). We detected 30 breeding pairs (density: 1.43 territorial pairs/100 km²), whose territories were uniformly distributed over the study area. We compared 15 habitat features characterising occupied cliffs and 30 randomly selected unoccupied cliffs by means of stepwise forward logistic regression and hierarchical partitioning. The logistic regression analysis showed that occupied cliffs were longer (horizontal length), steeper, and had a greater extension of urban areas in the surrounding landscape compared to non-occupied cliffs. The model had a discrimination ability of 0.95. Hierarchical partitioning indicated that the logistic regression model was appropriate. Neither the distance of cliffs to the nearest site occupied by a potential competitor and predator, the eagle owl Bubo bubo, which occurred at a low density (0.67 pairs/100 km²), nor the distance to the nearest site occupied by peregrines had any effect on the cliff suitability model. Therefore, habitat selection in cliff-nesting peregrines was mainly influenced by cliff site features and surrounding landscape characteristics, whereas the proximity to conspecifics and to an intraguild predator had no apparent effects on peregrine settlement in our study population.     

Factors influencing the spatial distribution of forest plant species in hedgerows of North-western Germany

In North-western Germany woodland fragmentation has caused a decline in many forest plant species. Hedgerows partly offer a similar environment as forests and have been identified as potential habitats for forest plants in various studies from North America and Western Europe. The objective of this study was to examine whether this applies also to Central Europe and which variables affect the spatial distribution and abundance of forest plant species in hedgerows on a local scale. Three hedgerow networks north of the city of Bremen, Germany, were selected as study areas and divided into totally 515 hedgerow segments. In each segment we recorded all vascular plants and a large number of explanatory variables relating to structure, spatial configuration, environment and management. Averaged across species there was a predominant effect of environmental factors on the occurrence of forest species in the hedgerows, followed by spatial configuration and management. Hedgerow structure was found to be less important. In general, forest species were favored by low nutrient and light availability as well as high connectivity with other hedgerows or forest; they avoided hedgerows with a west-easterly orientation and an adjacent land use in the form of fields or grasslands. Forest species found and not found in hedgerows did not differ in their environmental preferences or life history traits. The number of threatened forest species in the hedgerows, however, was lower than expected with respect to their overall proportion to the total number of forest species in the region.     

Factors controlling soil macrofauna spatial pattern in a pure beech and a mixed beech-hornbeam forest

The soil macrofauna of a pure beech (PS) and a mixed beech-hornbeam (MS) stand was recorded using a sample design spatially explicit at stand level. Humic epipedon morphological and chemical properties, relative irradiance, soil bulk density, and the specific composition of the litter in MS were also investigated. The taxonomic diversity is nearly similar on both sites, but the average by sample is greater under PS. The main factors controlling soil macrofauna spatial variability were: litter quality under MS and humus form activity under PS. These results suggest a distal control (i.e. external to humic epipedon) of macrofauna spatial variability when the litter quality is variable and a proximal control (i.e. internal to humic epipedon) when it is uniform at the spatial scale of the study.