Synchronization of the molecular clockwork by light- and food-related cues in mammals

The molecular clockwork in mammals involves various clock genes with specific temporal expression patterns. Synchronization of the master circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is accomplished mainly via daily resetting of the phase of the clock by light stimuli. Phase shifting responses to light are correlated with induction of Per1, Per2 and Dec1 expression and a possible reduction of Cry2 expression within SCN cells. The timing of peripheral oscillators is controlled by the SCN when food is available ad libitum. Time of feeding, as modulated by temporal restricted feeding, is a potent 'Zeitgeber' (synchronizer) for peripheral oscillators with only weak synchronizing influence on the SCN clockwork. When restricted feeding is coupled with caloric restriction, however, timing of clock gene expression is altered within the SCN, indicating that the SCN function is sensitive to metabolic cues. The components of the circadian timing system can be differentially synchronized according to distinct, sometimes conflicting, temporal (time of light exposure and feeding) and homeostatic (metabolic) cues.     

Sympathetic input modulates, but does not determine, phase of peripheral circadian oscillators

The circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) maintains phase synchrony among circadian oscillators throughout the organism. Environmental light signals entrain the SCN, but timed, limited meal access acts as an overriding time cue for several peripheral tissues. We present data from a peripheral oscillator, the submaxillary salivary gland, in which temporal restriction of meals fails to entrain gene expression. In day-fed rats, submaxillary gland rhythms in expression of the clock gene Period1 (Per1) stay entrained to the light cycle (peaking at night) or become arrhythmic. This result suggests that feeding cues compete weakly with light cycle cues to set the phase of clock genes in this tissue. Since the submaxillary glands receive sympathetic innervation originating in the SCN, which relays light cycle cues to other oscillators, we attempted to assess the role of this neural input in phase control of submaxillary Per1 expression. We sympathetically denervated the submaxillary glands before subjecting rats to daytime-restricted feeding. After denervation, Per1 rhythms in all submaxillary glands shifted phase 180 degrees and entrained to daytime feeding. These results support the hypothesis that peripheral oscillators may receive multiple signals contributing to their phase of entrainment. Sympathetic efferents from the SCN can relay light cycle information, while other external cues may reach tissues through other efferents or nonneural pathways. In an abnormal, disruptive regimen such as daytime-restricted feeding, these different signals compete. Arrhythmicity may result if one signal is not clearly dominant. Elimination of the dominant signal (e.g., surgical sympathectomy) may allow a secondary signal to control phase.     

Peripheral circadian oscillators in mammals: time and food

Peripheral cells from mammalian tissues, while perfectly capable of circadian rhythm generation, are not light sensitive and thus have to be entrained by nonphotic cues. Feeding time is the dominant zeitgeber for peripheral mammalian clocks: Daytime feeding of nocturnal laboratory rodents completely inverts the phase of circadian gene expression in many tissues, including liver, heart, kidney, and pancreas, but it has no effect on the SCN pacemaker. It is thus plausible that in intact animals, the SCN synchronizes peripheral docks primarily through temporal feeding patterns that are imposed through behavioral rest-activity cycles. In addition, body temperature rhythms, which are themselves dependent on both feeding patterns and rest-activity cycles, can sustain circadian, clock gene activity in vivo and in vitro. The SCN may also influence the phase of rhythmic gene expression in peripheral tissues through direct chemical pathways. In fact, many chemical signals induce circadian gene expression in tissue culture cells. Some of these have been shown to elicit phase shifts when injected into intact animals and are thus candidates for physiologically relevant timing cues. While the response of the SCN to light is strictly gated to respond only during the night, peripheral oscillators can be chemically phase shifted throughout the day. For example, injection of dexamethasone, a glucocorticoid receptor agonist, resets the phase of circadian liver gene expression during the entire 24-h day. Given the bewildering array of agents capable of influencing peripheral clocks, the identification of physiologically relevant agents used by the SCN to synchronize peripheral clocks will clearly be an arduous undertaking. Nevertheless, we feel that experimental systems by which this enticing problem can be tackled are now at hand.     

Environmental stimulus perception and control of circadian clocks

Circadian rhythms are regulated by clocks located in specific structures of the central nervous system, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in mammals, and by peripheral oscillators present in various other tissues. Recent discoveries have elucidated the control of central and peripheral clocks by environmental signals. The major synchroniser in animals is light. In mammals, a subset of retinal ganglion cells receive light signals that are transmitted to the SCN via the retinohypothalamic tract. Photoreception is probably elicited by a novel opsin, melanopsin, although cryptochromes may also play a role. These signals feed directly to the SCN master clock, which then provides timing cues to peripheral clocks. In contrast to mammals, peripheral tissues in the fly and in the fish are directly photoreceptive. However, alternative routes exist. Some peripheral clocks in mammals can be specifically entrained in an SCN-independent manner by restricting food during the light period.     

Light-induced phase-shifting of the peripheral circadian oscillator in the hearts of food-deprived mice.

In the present study, we investigated the effect of fasting on photoentrainment of the peripheral circadian oscillator in the mammalian heart. Northern blotting showed that a single light pulse applied at an appropriate time in constant darkness, caused obvious phase-shifting in the circadian expression rhythm of the mammalian clock gene Period2 (mPer2) even in the hearts of food-deprived mice. Fasting did not significantly affect either the phase or the light-induced phase-shifts of the mPer2 rhythm. Although several studies of temporal feeding restriction have indicated that feeding is the dominant timing cue for mammalian peripheral oscillators, our findings suggest that feeding is not essential for mammals to induce phase resetting of the circadian oscillator in the heart.     

Ultradian feeding in mice not only affects the peripheral clock in the liver,but also the master clock in the brain

Restricted feeding during the resting period causes pronounced shifts in a number of peripheral clocks, but not the central clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). By contrast, daily caloric restriction impacts also the light-entrained SCN clock, as indicated by shifted oscillations of clock (PER1) and clock-controlled (vasopressin) proteins. To determine if these SCN changes are due to the metabolic or timing cues of the restricted feeding, mice were challenged with an ultradian 6-meals schedule (1 food access every 4 h) to abolish the daily periodicity of feeding. Mice fed with ultradian feeding that lost <10% body mass (i.e. isocaloric) displayed 1.5-h phase-advance of body temperature rhythm, but remained mostly nocturnal, together with up-regulated vasopressin and down-regulated PER1 and PER2 levels in the SCN. Hepatic expression of clock genes (Per2, Rev-erbα, and Clock) and Fgf21 was, respectively, phase-advanced and up-regulated by ultradian feeding. Mice fed with ultradian feeding that lost >10% body mass (i.e. hypocaloric) became more diurnal, hypothermic in late night, and displayed larger (3.5 h) advance of body temperature rhythm, more reduced PER1 expression in the SCN, and further modified gene expression in the liver (e.g. larger phase-advance of Per2 and up-regulated levels of Pgc-1α). While glucose rhythmicity was lost under ultradian feeding, the phase of daily rhythms in liver glycogen and plasma corticosterone (albeit increased in amplitude) remained unchanged. In conclusion, the additional impact of hypocaloric conditions on the SCN are mainly due to the metabolic and not the timing effects of restricted daytime feeding.     

Glucocorticoid hormones inhibit food-induced phase-shifting of peripheral circadian oscillators.

The circadian timing system in mammals is composed of a master pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus and slave clocks in most peripheral cell types. The phase of peripheral clocks can be completely uncoupled from the SCN pacemaker by restricted feeding. Thus, feeding time, while not affecting the phase of the SCN pacemaker, is a dominant Zeitgeber for peripheral circadian oscillators. Here we show that the phase resetting in peripheral clocks of nocturnal mice is slow when feeding time is changed from night to day and rapid when switched back from day to night. Unexpectedly, the inertia in daytime feeding-induced phase resetting of circadian gene expression in liver and kidney is not an intrinsic property of peripheral oscillators, but is caused by glucocorticoid signaling. Thus, glucocorticoid hormones inhibit the uncoupling of peripheral and central circadian oscillators by altered feeding time.     

Entrainment of circadian clocks in mammals by arousal and food

Circadian rhythms in mammals are regulated by a system of endogenous circadian oscillators (clock cells) in the brain and in most peripheral organs and tissues. One group of clock cells in the hypothalamic SCN (suprachiasmatic nuclei) functions as a pacemaker for co-ordinating the timing of oscillators elsewhere in the brain and body. This master clock can be reset and entrained by daily LD (light-dark) cycles and thereby also serves to interface internal with external time, ensuring an appropriate alignment of behavioural and physiological rhythms with the solar day. Two features of the mammalian circadian system provide flexibility in circadian programming to exploit temporal regularities of social stimuli or food availability. One feature is the sensitivity of the SCN pacemaker to behavioural arousal stimulated during the usual sleep period, which can reset its phase and modulate its response to LD stimuli. Neural pathways from the brainstem and thalamus mediate these effects by releasing neurochemicals that inhibit retinal inputs to the SCN clock or that alter clock-gene expression in SCN clock cells. A second feature is the sensitivity of circadian oscillators outside of the SCN to stimuli associated with food intake, which enables animals to uncouple rhythms of behaviour and physiology from LD cycles and align these with predictable daily mealtimes. The location of oscillators necessary for food-entrained behavioural rhythms is not yet certain. Persistence of these rhythms in mice with clock-gene mutations that disable the SCN pacemaker suggests diversity in the molecular basis of light- and food-entrainable clocks.     

Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells

The mammalian circadian timing system is composed of a central pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the brain and subsidiary oscillators in most peripheral cell types. While oscillators in SCN neurons are known to function in a self-sustained fashion, peripheral oscillators have been thought to damp rapidly when disconnected from the control exerted by the SCN. Using two reporter systems, we monitored circadian gene expression in NIH3T3 mouse fibroblasts in real time and in individual cells. In conjunction with mathematical modeling and cell co-culture experiments, these data demonstrated that in vitro cultured fibroblasts harbor self-sustained and cell-autonomous circadian clocks similar to those operative in SCN neurons. Circadian gene expression in fibroblasts continues during cell division, and our experiments unveiled unexpected interactions between the circadian clock and the cell division clock. Specifically, the circadian oscillator gates cytokinesis to defined time windows, and mitosis elicits phase shifts in circadian cycles.     

Circadian organization is governed by extra-SCN pacemakers

In mammals, a pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is thought to be required for behavioral, physiological, and molecular circadian rhythms. However, there is considerable evidence that temporal food restriction (restricted feedisng [RF]) and chronic methamphetamine (MA) can drive circadian rhythms of locomotor activity, body temperature, and endocrine function in the absence of SCN. This indicates the existence of extra-SCN pacemakers: the Food Entrainable Oscillator (FEO) and Methamphetamine Sensitive Circadian Oscillator (MASCO). Here, we show that these extra-SCN pacemakers control the phases of peripheral oscillators in intact as well as in SCN-ablated PER2::LUC mice. MA administration shifted the phases of SCN, cornea, pineal, pituitary, kidney, and salivary glands in intact animals. When the SCN was ablated, disrupted phase relationships among peripheral oscillators were reinstated by MA treatment. When intact animals were subjected to restricted feeding, the phases of cornea, pineal, kidney, salivary gland, lung, and liver were shifted. In SCN-lesioned restricted-fed mice, phases of all of the tissues shifted such that they aligned with the time of the meal. Taken together, these data show that FEO and MASCO are strong circadian pacemakers able to regulate the phases of peripheral oscillators.     

Circadian molecular clocks tick along ontogenesis

The circadian system controls the timing of behavioral and physiological functions in most organisms studied. The review addresses the question of when and how the molecular clockwork underlying circadian oscillations within the central circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus (SCN) and the peripheral circadian clocks develops during ontogenesis. The current model of the molecular clockwork is summarized. The central SCN clock is viewed as a complex structure composed of a web of mutually synchronized individual oscillators. The importance of development of both the intracellular molecular clockwork as well as intercellular coupling for development of the formal properties of the circadian SCN clock is also highlighted. Recently, data has accumulated to demonstrate that synchronized molecular oscillations in the central and peripheral clocks develop gradually during ontogenesis and development extends into postnatal period. Synchronized molecular oscillations develop earlier in the SCN than in the peripheral clocks. A hypothesis is suggested that the immature clocks might be first driven by external entraining cues, and therefore, serve as "slave" oscillators. During ontogenesis, the clocks may gradually develop a complete set of molecular interlocked oscillations, i.e., the molecular clockwork, and become self-sustained clocks.     

Early Chronotype and Tissue-Specific Alterations of Circadian Clock Function in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Malfunction of the circadian timing system may result in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, and conversely, these diseases can impair the circadian system. The aim of this study was to reveal whether the functional state of the circadian system of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) differs from that of control Wistar rat. This study is the first to analyze the function of the circadian system of SHR in its complexity, i.e., of the central clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) as well as of the peripheral clocks. The functional properties of the SCN clock were estimated by behavioral output rhythm in locomotor activity and daily profiles of clock gene expression in the SCN determined by in situ hybridization. The function of the peripheral clocks was assessed by daily profiles of clock gene expression in the liver and colon by RT-PCR and in vitro using real time recording of Bmal1-dLuc reporter. The potential impact of the SHR phenotype on circadian control of the metabolic pathways was estimated by daily profiles of metabolism-relevant gene expression in the liver and colon. The results revealed that SHR exhibited an early chronotype, because the central SCN clock was phase advanced relative to light/dark cycle and the SCN driven output rhythm ran faster compared to Wistar rats. Moreover, the output rhythm was dampened. The SHR peripheral clock reacted to the dampened SCN output with tissue-specific consequences. In the colon of SHR the clock function was severely altered, whereas the differences are only marginal in the liver. These changes may likely result in a mutual desynchrony of circadian oscillators within the circadian system of SHR, thereby potentially contributing to metabolic pathology of the strain. The SHR may thus serve as a valuable model of human circadian disorders originating in poor synchrony of the circadian system with external light/dark regime.