基于PAE 编码系统的太行山猕猴行为谱

2009 年2 月至2010 年3 月,在河南太行山猕猴国家级自然保护区济源管理局愚公管理分局所辖的天坛山
管护区,利用焦点动物取样法,观察并记录了野生太行山猕猴行为的发生过程、内容和环境。基于以“姿势-
动作- 环境”(Posture-act-environment,PAE)为轴心、以行为生态功能为依据的PAE 编码系统,对野生太行山
猕猴的行为进行分类和系统编码并构建PAE 行为谱。结果:1)研究中分辨并记录到猕猴的14 种姿势,93 种动
作,121 种行为;2)将所记录到的行为分别划归于摄食、排遗、调温、配对、交配、育幼、竞争、亲密、聚群、
通讯、休息、运动和其他等13 个类别中;3)得到了基于PAE 编码系统的野生太行山猕猴行为谱。     

基于分块主成分分析的太行山猕猴面部相似性

2012 年4 ～8 月,在太行山猕猴国家级自然保护区济源管理局天坛山管护区(北纬35°05′ ～ 35°15′,东经112°12′ ～ 112°22′),对太行山猕猴王屋1 群(WW - 1)内的3 个母系单元(matrilineal unit) 中大于(等于)3 岁龄的26 只个体进行面部拍照,获取其面部特写照片,进而利用分块主成分分析(modular principal component analysis,MPCA)法,对个体进行面部识别分析,旨在探讨个体间面部相似度与亲缘关系的相关性。结果表明:(1)太行山猕猴个体间的面部相似度与亲缘类型有关,母亲与大于3 岁龄子代间的面部相似度为0.93 ±0. 00,显著高于单元内(0. 89 ± 0. 00)和单元间(0.84 ±0.01)的面部相似度;(2)太行山猕猴个体的面部特征随年龄增长而变化,4 岁(含4 岁)龄以上个体与母亲间的面部相似度较高(0.88 ～ 0. 95),依此值可准确地识别母子关系。本研究采用量化方法对非人灵长类个体间面部相似度进行分析,发现太行山猕猴个体间的面部相似度与亲缘关系密切相关;研究结果可为非人灵长类的个体识别提供较为客观的手段和方法。     

Dietary diversity of an ecological and macronutritional generalist primate in a harsh high‐latitude habitat,the Taihangshan macaque (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis)

Recent advances in niche theory have stressed the importance of understanding dietary generalism at multiple levels, including the range of habitat and foods exploited by a species, foods exploited within populations, and patterns of nutrient intake. Here we apply this framework to examine the dietary strategy of the Macaca mulatta, a primate species that is second only to humans in their breadth of geographical distribution, and occupy diverse ecological habitats from cold temperate to tropical latitudes. A recent study showed that the Taihangshan subspecies ( M. mulatta tcheliensis) in China, which is found at the northern latitudinal limit of the species range, respond to ecologically constrained interannual variation in the macronutrient ratios of the spring diet in a way that theory predicts should be associated with ecological generalism. Here we further extend this study, examining the relationships between seasonal variation in food availability and the patterns of food selection across a full year. We found that, despite the ecological and macronutritional generalism of the species, Taihangshan macaques subsist on a relatively small range of foods (57 different foods, spread across 8 categories comprising seeds, fruits, buds, flowers, leaves, herbs, young bark, and twigs), but face considerable seasonal variation in the combinations available. In spring and summer, when seeds were scarce, leaves accounted for 60.3 ± 13.8% of their diet (dry matter [DM] %), and herbs contributed 31.7 ± 22.2%. However, in autumn and winter, when seeds were abundant, they contributed 68.5 ± 22.7% of the diet while herbs accounted for 18.9 ± 12.9% on a DM. Although young bark and twigs were available in all seasons, the macaques only fed on them in winter. We present comparative data from the literature on the diets of M. mulatta and other Macaca species, to interpret this pattern of resource use within the framework of multilevel niche theory.     

Neonatal nipple preference and maternal cradling laterality in wild Taihangshan macaques (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis)

Lateralized behavior is considered an observable phenotype of cerebral functional asymmetry and has been documented in many mammalian species. In the present study, we examined evidence of lateralization in neonatal nipple contact, maternal cradling, and the relationship between these two behaviors during the first 12 weeks of life in wild Taihangshan macaques (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis). The results showed that across our sample of nine mother–infant dyads: (1) Seven of nine neonates exhibited a significant left-side nipple preference during the first 12 weeks of life, whereas eight of nine mothers displayed a significant right-side cradling preference; (2) at the population level, there was a significant preference for left nipple contact by neonatal Taihangshan macaques and a significant right-hand maternal cradling preference; (3) at the population level, there was a nonsignificant negative correlation between neonatal nipple preference and maternal cradling bias; and (4) the strength of individual neonatal nipple preference and maternal cradling laterality were not correlated. We conclude that asymmetry in nipple contact of Taihangshan macaques occurs early in behavioral development. Given that infant Taihangshan macaques are able to nurse and cling unassisted to their mothers within a few days after birth, it appears that the infant rather than its mother is responsible for determining a nipple-side preference. Our results indicating a left-side nipple bias in 78% of wild neonatal Taihangshan macaques are most consistent with the heartbeat hypothesis.     

太行山猕猴的冬季生境选择

2007 年11 月至2008 年2 月,在太行山猕猴国家级自然保护区愚公保护站,根据观察到的猕猴活动痕迹和位置,设置了180 个10 m × 10 m 的样方。在这些样方中,对10 个生态因子(地形、海拔高度、坡位、坡向、坡度、离水源距离、人为干扰、郁闭度、隐蔽度、平均胸径)进行了调查分析,以期了解太行山猕猴的冬季生境选择特征。结果表明:太行山猕猴在冬季喜好选择的生境特征为:倾向于围绕大树(乔木平均胸径> 15 cm)活动;较之其它季节,冬季的猕猴更愿意接近人类居所(< 2 000 m),并选择离水源近(< 1 000 m)的地方活动,说明直接饮水可能是猕猴在干旱冬季获得足量水分的重要途径;冬季猕猴喜欢在坡度为15° ～40°、郁闭度< 60% 的阳坡活动,活动区域的海拔高度为1 000 ～1 300 m。猕猴对生境中地形特征和坡位无明显偏好,对活动地点的隐蔽条件也无特殊要求。文中还对所选择的生态因子进行了主成分分析,结果表明,前5 个主成分的特征值均大于1,其累积贡献率达到70.713% ,可以较好地反映猕猴的冬季生境特征。     

Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) group formation and housing: wounding and reproduction in a specific pathogen free (SPF) colony.

In the present report, we examined the effects of group formation strategy and corral design on wounding and reproduction rates in rhesus macaques. Specifically, we examined group formation using a staged strategy, in which small groups of animals were introduced incrementally over a period of weeks, and a rapid formation strategy, in which all animals were introduced in 1 day. We also examined group formation using a divided corral design that facilitated visual and social separation of individuals, and an undivided corral design that did not facilitate visual or social separation. Dependent measures were wounding and reproductive rates over each of the 2 years that followed group formation. Results indicate that incrementally releasing subgroups of animals, and using a corral design that provides for visual and social separation of individuals, are effective strategies for reducing rates of traumatic wounding when forming multimale-multifemale rhesus macaque breeding groups. However, it must be noted that differences in formation strategy and corral design did not lead to higher reproductive rates. We conclude that incrementally releasing animals in hierarchical subgroups, and using a divided vs. undivided housing design, reduced intra-group wounding and associated demands on veterinary and animal management resources following formation of rhesus macaque breeding groups.     

The effects of extended time in the laboratory on selected aspects of reproduction in the female rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Reproduction data from 60 wild-caught and 16 captive-born, hand-reared female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were examined. Both groups had been maintained in a controlled laboratory environment, the wild-caught for a minimum of 10 years and the captive-born for a minimum of 5 years. All were bred to wild-caught males. Animals of both sexes were individually caged unless being bred. Data from 662 pregnancies indicated that, although seasonal breeding became attenuated in the laboratory, it did not disappear. Neither pregnancy outcome nor number of matings necessary for conception was affected by increasing parity or prior occurrence of fetal wastage or hysterotomy. Nor did hysterotomy affect the potential for a subsequent vaginal delivery. The number of matings necessary for conception were shown to be a useful predictor of animals that should be culled from the breeding colony. Birthweights of infants of wild-caught females, but only male infants of house-born females, increased with parity of the mother. Parity had only minimal effect on gestation length. Conception was shown to occur infrequently at less than 100 days postpartum even when animals were not lactating and were rebred begining as early as 56 days postpartum. Summary data were presented for pregnancy outcome, gestation length, infant birth weight, and sex for both groups of animals.     

Effects of early experience on the behaviour of yearling rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the presence of a strange object: classification and correlation approaches

Special techniques are needed to help us understand the long-term effects of infants' experiences of their relationships with their mothers, especially when direct experimental control of the interaction between mother and young is impossible, or could distort their relationship. A classification approach is developed to show how outcomes in individuals can be predicted from their earlier experiences and characteristics. Four-week-old rhesus monkey infants' characteristic levels of enterprise persisted through their first year, but could be reduced in certain individuals who had been kept off their mothers by high rates of early maternal rejection. Correlational approaches are difficult to interpret when they fail to confirm simple effects of experience or of individual characteristics, because they are based on groups not individuals, and because certain individuals can affect the values of correlation coefficients in ways that cannot be specified without using a classification approach. The possible effects on correlation coefficients of inconsistent individuals, and of being unable to specify which infants respond in which ways to relevant variables were discussed.     

Effects of organic matter availability on the life history and production of a top vertebrate predator (Plethodontidae: Gyrinophilus palleucus) in two cave streams

1. Surface ecosystems provide the primary source of organic matter to many cave communities. Variation in the strength of connectivity to the surface suggests that some caves may be more resource‐limited than others. To test this, we examined diet, prey availability and production of an obligate cave salamander Gyrinophilus palleucus (Plethodontidae), a top predator, in two south‐eastern U.S.A. caves with different levels of organic matter (Tony Sinks cave, 165 g AFDM m^?2; Bluff River cave, 62 g AFDM m^?2). 2. We quantified density, biomass, growth rate, production and diet of G. palleucus monthly for 21 months. Diet composition, differences in prey communities and seasonal patterns in prey consumption were also analysed. 3. Salamander density, biomass and secondary production were significantly greater in the high organic matter cave (0.10 m^?2, 0.18 g AFDM m^?2, 0.12 g AFDM m^?2 year^?1) than in the low organic matter cave (0.03 m^?2, 0.03 g AFDM m^?2, 0.01 g AFDM m^?2 year^?1). Although growth rates were not statistically different between the two cave salamander populations, low recaptures probably influenced this result. 4. Isopoda prey were the major contributor to salamander production in the high organic matter cave (69%). In the low organic matter cave, production was provided by isopods (41%) and oligochaetes (20%). The lower number of prey taxa contributing to salamander production in the high organic matter cave suggests the ability to forage more selectively. 5. The differences in foraging strategy, density, biomass and secondary production were probably related to differences in the strength of surface connectivity, which controls organic matter supply. Links between basal resource level and top predator performance show the importance of bottom‐up limitation in the food webs of caves and other detritus‐based ecosystems.