Litter size and infant survivorship in wild groups of cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in Colombia

Cotton‐top tamains (Saguinus oedipus) are a critically endangered primate found only in Colombia. Efforts to conserve this species are centered on developing effective management plans that integrate biological information regarding population dynamics and factors that influence their survival. This study documented infants born to wild cotton‐top tamarin females from 1994–2008 at two distinct field sites in northern Colombia. Our studies have shown that wild cotton‐top tamarins typically give birth to one litter each year and infant survival to 6 months of age was greater in the wild than has been reported in captive colonies. However, similar to reports from captive colonies, litter size of wild cotton‐top tamarins ranges from 1–3 infants, with twin litters most common. Here we report the first occurrence of triplet litters in nearly 20 years of observing wild cotton‐top tamarin groups. Over the first 3 months of life, wild‐born infants exhibited highest mortality during the first week of life, similar to reports from captive colonies. Infant survival in the wild also increases with successive litters as it does in captivity. However, inter‐birth interval, group size, and the number of adult males in the group did not appear to influence infant survival in the wild. The value of such long‐term data from field studies aids in the information that can be used to model future population trends and develop effective conservation plans for this critically endangered primate. Am. J. Primatol. 71:707–711, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The use of long acting subcutaneous levonorgestrel (LNG) gel depot as an effective contraceptive option for cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) are a critically endangered species that have been bred successfully in captivity for many years. For two decades, the Cotton‐top Tamarin SSP^© has been challenged with a high rate of reproduction combined with a history of contraceptive failures and nonrecommended births using the current Depo Provera^® (medroxyprogesterone acetate) injection followed by MGA (melengestrol acetate) implant contraception combination. To address these issues we have developed and tested the use of levonorgestrel (LNG) as an effective contraception option for cotton‐top tamarins. LNG was delivered in an injectable, gel matrix consisting of polylactic‐co‐glycolic acid, triethyl citrate and N‐methylpyrrolidone. This gel matrix forms a biodegradable depot at the subcutaneous injection site providing slow release of the active ingredient. Gel matrix composition and LNG concentration were adjusted in four gel formulations to maximize the duration of contraceptive efficacy while minimizing immediate post‐injection increases in fecal LNG concentration. LNG treatment (68.44±8.61 mg/kg) successfully eliminated ovarian cycles (fecal pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PdG) and estrone conjugates (E₁C)) for 198.8±70.3 days (formulation four; range 19–50 weeks). It was demonstrated that subcutaneous LNG depot injection was an effective, reversible contraceptive option for the management of cotton‐top tamarins in captivity. Zoo Biol 30:498–522, 2011. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Reconciliation in captive cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), a cooperative breeding primate

Reconciliation has been demonstrated in all primate species in which the phenomenon has been studied. However, reconciliation has been studied in only two species of callitrichids, and conclusions remain controversial. The first aim of this study has been to find out whether captive cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) reconcile, since this is the first such study on this species. We examined 227 conflicts in three family groups (N=19). Instances in which individuals remained together in t=0 (29; 12.8%) were not analyzed. The cotton‐top tamarins showed heightened affiliation between opponents in the postconflict periods (PC) compared with matched control (MC) periods (39.88±5.12% and 3.18±1.27%, respectively), with a corrected conciliatory tendency of 37.17±5.37%, and a “time window” that included the first 180 sec of the PC period. Former opponents were the most likely recipient of affiliative behaviors during the PC periods: 39.83±4.26% vs. 11.36±5.33% during MC periods. The proportion of attracted pairs (47.13±6.25%) was significantly higher than those of dispersed pairs for male–male conflicts (3.79±1.79), but not for male–female conflicts (27.31±9.32 and 4.82±2.9, respectively). In cooperative‐breeding species, specific sex‐class dyads might differ in how they resolve conflicts. Am. J. Primatol. 71:895–900, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive-born cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) respond similarly to vocalizations of predators and sympatric nonpredators

What types of cues do callitrichid primates use to detect and respond to predators? Do they respond to predator‐specific cues or to more general cues? The evidence for these questions remains conflicting. We presented captive‐born and reared cotton‐top tamarins with no previous exposure to predators (or predator cues) with vocalizations from three potential predators of cotton‐top tamarin in the wild (white hawk, jaguar, and tayra) and with vocalizations from sympatric nonpredators (black‐faced antthrush and red howler monkey). Vocalizations from predators and from nonpredator mammals elicited equivalent arousal, fear, and vocal responses. Howler monkey roars produced the strongest responses. The results suggest that predator‐naïve cotton‐top tamarins do not recognize specific predator vocalizations, but may respond to vocal qualities (low‐frequency, noisy sounds) that indicate large body size, threat, or aggression. On the other hand, tamarins responded much more strongly to the higher frequency calls from the hawk than the antthrush, suggesting another mechanism must also be involved. The failure of captive‐reared tamarins to distinguish between vocalizations of predators and nonpredator mammals has important implications for reintroduction studies. Am. J. Primatol. 70:707–710, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Costs of infant‐carrying in the cotton‐top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus)

Infant‐carrying behavior among callitrichids seems to be a costly activity. Costs have been related to the physical efforts of carrying the weight of very heavy infants and to the resulting reduction in foraging efficiency. However, the costs of carrying in terms of the physical consequences for carriers have not previously been assessed. In this study, we have regarded weight loss in infant carriers as a measure of costs. We studied five families of cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) during the first 9 weeks following the birth of infants. Captive‐breeding conditions were required so that body weight could be measured frequently. To avoid inflicting undue stress on the subject animals, we used a noninvasive method for weighing the tamarins. Differences in carrying contribution were found amongst fathers and male and female helpers, with female helpers contributing less. We have found that carrying infants in the cotton‐top tamarins is an activity that produces a weight loss. Fathers and male helpers go through a maximal body weight loss. While carrying, the tamarins also decrease food intake. However, no relationship was found between contribution to carrying and feeding time or in energetic intake during feeding observations. Thus, it seems that a direct relation doesn't exist between the observations of feeding and weight loss. Fathers increase their contribution to carrying during mothers' periovulatory periods. In this period, male helpers and especially fathers go through a maximal body weight loss. We found body weight losses of up to 11.3% in one subadult male and 9.1percnt; in a father during the fifth week. No changes occurred in food intake in fathers or other male helpers during this period. During periovulatory periods, mothers carried less frequently but did increase their food intake. They gained weight from the second week after birth onward, especially during the periovulatory period. It seems that the infant‐carrying behavior of fathers and male helpers may contribute to the improvement of the mothers' physical condition after birth and therefore may support a consecutive pregnancy. Am. J. Primatol. 48:99–111, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive cotton‐top tamarins' (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) use of landmarks to localize hidden food items

Seventeen captive cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) were individually tested on their use of spatial relationships between landmarks to locate multiple hidden food items. In two experiments, the tamarins were presented with a spatial‐foraging task in which positions of hidden food rewards were fixed in relation to an array of visual cues. In Experiment 1, the cues+hidden food configuration was rotated 90° and the tamarins were successful in locating the food items significantly above chance levels (P<0.01). In Experiment 2 the cues+hidden food configuration was translated (up, down or sideways) from the previously learned configuration, and the monkeys successfully localized the hidden food items (P<0.001). Results indicate that the tamarins relied on the spatial relationship between the multiple landmarks to locate hidden food items rather than on an associative or beacon strategy. The results of these experiments support the contention that when contextually appropriate these captive New World monkeys have the capacity to rely on the spatial relationship or positions of several cues as an array to localize points in their environment. Am. J. Primatol. 71:316–323, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Tree and forest characteristics influence sleeping site choice by golden lion tamarins

Lion tamarin monkeys are among a small number of primates that repeatedly use a few tree holes for the majority of their sleeping sites. To better understand why lion tamarins rely on tree holes as sleeping sites, we compared the physical characteristics of frequently used sleeping sites, infrequently used sleeping sites, and randomly selected forest locations at multiple spatial scales. From 1990 to 2004, we recorded 5,235 occurrences of sleeping site use by 10 groups of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) in Poço das Antas Reserve, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Of those, 63.6% were tree holes. Bamboo accounted for an additional 17.5% of observations. Frequently used tree holes were more likely to be found in living trees and their entrances were at lower canopy heights than infrequently used tree holes. We also found that frequently used sleeping sites, in comparison to random sites, were more likely to be found on hillsides, be close to other large trees, have a lower percent of canopy cover, and have larger diameter at breast height. Topography and small‐scale variables were more accurate than were habitat‐level classifications in predicting frequently used sleeping sites. There are ample tree holes available to these lion tamarins but few preferred sites to which they return repeatedly. The lion tamarins find these preferred sites wherever they occur including in mature forest and in relics of older forest embedded in a matrix of secondary forest. Am. J. Primatol. 69:976–988, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Optimal conditions for breeding of captive humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti): A survey of British zoos

We surveyed 16 British zoos and bird gardens to assess the optimal conditions for breeding of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). We obtained information on population, enclosure, and husbandry characteristics and related these variables to three measures of per capita breeding success, namely, per capita egg productivity, chick productivity, and hatching success (measured as the proportion of eggs laid that hatched). All three fitness measures increased with an increasing number of breeding pairs and total population size but were not related to population density. Once the effect of number of breeding pairs was removed statistically, chick productivity was found to be highest when nesting boxes were lined with sand and gravel instead of alternative substrata such as twigs or vegetation. Hatching success increased with increasing pool size and was highest in enclosures with concrete floors. Adult mortality in zoos was generally low and appeared related to the use of chlorine in freshwater pools and to the presence of other penguin species in Humboldt penguin displays. Several enclosure and husbandry parameters were not variable enough to assess their impact on reproduction of captive Humboldt penguins. Recommendations for optimising conditions for captive breeding of Humboldt penguins include keeping as large a population as possible in a concrete enclosure with a large pool area, while providing sand and gravel as nesting material. Bird density may be important but we did not detect detrimental effects on breeding for densities up to 0.25 birds m^–2. Adult mortality can be minimised by exhibiting Humboldt penguins in single‐species display and avoiding chlorination of pool water. An experimental approach is recommended to confirm the results of this correlational study. Zoo Biol 20:545–555, 2001. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Correlates of molt in golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia)

In this paper we describe the timing and correlates of molt for a native population of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). We conducted 820 examinations of 267 adult tamarins over a 7.75 year period to determine the annual molting cycle in this population. Dorsal molt was an annual event for most individuals in the study population; however, 10% of sampled individuals apparently molted twice in a 12 month period. Duration of molt was estimated at 5–6 weeks. The proportion of samples in which tamarins were in molt was significantly greater during the wet season than the dry season and positively correlated with mean monthly precipitation and minimum temperature but not tamarin births, suggesting an environmental component to timing of molt. We found no sex differences in the occurrence of molt during wet or dry seasons. However, the relative frequency of samples in molt was significantly less for gravid females than for nongravid females. In four polygynous groups, socially dominant females gave birth before subordinate females, and younger reproductive females completed molt before older reproductive females. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Development of husbandry practices for the captive breeding of key largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli)

The Key Largo woodrat is an endangered rodent endemic to the island of Key Largo in the Florida Keys. After several reports documented a steep decline in the population, the US Fish and Wildlife Service developed a recovery plan, including captive breeding and reintroduction. Captive breeding efforts were to be focused on providing animals for future reintroduction to protected areas on Key Largo. However, little was known about the husbandry needs or reproductive behavior of this elusive nocturnal species. In 2005, Disney's Animal Kingdom^® received 11 animals and began to systematically investigate methods of breeding Key Largo woodrats. Since the program's inception, 30 pups have been born and successfully parent reared. In this report, we describe some of the husbandry techniques that have contributed to the success of the Key Largo woodrat captive breeding program at Disney's Animal Kingdom^®. The results obtained may be of use to other facilities maintaining woodrats and other rodent species. Zoo Biol 30:318–327, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Regression trees for predicting mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease: What improvement is achieved by using ensemble‐based methods?

In biomedical research, the logistic regression model is the most commonly used method for predicting the probability of a binary outcome. While many clinical researchers have expressed an enthusiasm for regression trees, this method may have limited accuracy for predicting health outcomes. We aimed to evaluate the improvement that is achieved by using ensemble‐based methods, including bootstrap aggregation (bagging) of regression trees, random forests, and boosted regression trees. We analyzed 30‐day mortality in two large cohorts of patients hospitalized with either acute myocardial infarction (N = 16,230) or congestive heart failure (N = 15,848) in two distinct eras (1999–2001 and 2004–2005). We found that both the in‐sample and out‐of‐sample prediction of ensemble methods offered substantial improvement in predicting cardiovascular mortality compared to conventional regression trees. However, conventional logistic regression models that incorporated restricted cubic smoothing splines had even better performance. We conclude that ensemble methods from the data mining and machine learning literature increase the predictive performance of regression trees, but may not lead to clear advantages over conventional logistic regression models for predicting short‐term mortality in population‐based samples of subjects with cardiovascular disease.     

Factors influencing weight changes in callitrichids at the Bronx zoo

Callitrichids are small monkeys with high metabolic rates who appear to be susceptible to spontaneous diseases and possibly to environmental changes creating challenges in maintaining them in captivity. This study investigates whether life events (i.e. medical, social and housing changes) can influence weight. In previous research, body mass has been shown to be correlated with periods of illness, group composition changes and stress. Weights of 56 individual callitrichid monkeys (20 marmosets, 26 tamarins and 11 lion tamarins) at the WCS's Bronx Zoo were examined over approximately 2½ years. Weight fluctuations were scored based on 5%, 10% and 1 standard deviation criteria during periods of medical (illness and injury), social (introductions and separations), housing (movement within or between buildings) events and during periods when no‐events occurred. Additionally, weights were examined for 3 months before and after periods of illness to look for trends in weight changes for 47 medical events (14 marmosets, 21 tamarins and 12 lion tamarins). Moreover, in five alloparenting males (four tamarins and one lion tamarin), weights were examined to determine if weight loss occurred after births as observed in earlier studies. The results show that a 5% and 1SD criterion may be too sensitive a criterion. We therefore deemed that a 10% weight loss may be the best criterion. For marmosets, a 10% weight loss occurred in association with all events. For tamarins, weight loss occurred with housing events. In lion tamarins, weight loss was observed with medical events. No significant weight loss was observed in alloparenting males. Zoo Biol 29:551–566, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

History and dietary husbandry of pangolins in captivity

The objective of this study was to establish a history of feeding and dietary husbandry of pangolin in captivity. Over the past 150 years, several zoos have attempted to maintain pangolins (Manis spp). Most of these zoos have not succeeded in maintaining these animals for long periods, associated largely with dietary problems. This study reviews the historic records of captive pangolins. The dietary husbandry of pangolins in Taipei Zoo is discussed in detail. Zoo Biol 0:1–8, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Absolute Configurations of Four Resorcylic Acid Lactones,Paecilomycins J − M,by CD/TDDFT Calculations

The absolute configurations of four resorcylic acid lactones (RALs), paecilomycins J ? M ( 1 ? 3 and 5 ), were assigned by Time‐Dependent Density‐Functional Theory (TDDFT) calculations of their electronic circular dichroism (CD) spectra. The previously reported structure 4 for paecilomycin M was found to be incorrect and should be changed to structure 5 . Analysis of structure‐spectrum relationship for this group of RALs suggested that V′‐shape conformations give type I CD spectra (two negative Cotton effects around 300 and 260 nm, a positive Cotton effect around 220 nm) while V‐shape conformations yield type II spectra (signs of three Cotton effects were opposite to those in type I). Chirality 26:44–50, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A Retrospective Study of Mortality in Varanid Lizards (Reptilia:Squamata:Varanidae) at the Bronx Zoo: Implications for Husbandry and Reproductive Management in Zoos

Varanid lizards have been maintained in zoological parks for more than a century, yet few studies to date have attempted to pinpoint significant health issues affecting their management or areas of captive husbandry that are in need of improvement. In an effort to identify and better understand some of the husbandry‐related challenges and health issues specifically affecting varanids in zoos, this study examined mortality in 16 species maintained at the Bronx Zoo between 1968 and 2009. Out of 108 records reviewed, complete necropsy reports were available for 85 individuals. Infection‐related processes including bacterial (15.3%), protozoal (12.9%), nematode (9.4%), and fungal (3.5%) infections accounted for the greatest number of deaths (47.1%). Noninfectious diseases including female reproductive disorders (7.1%), neoplasia (7.1%), gout (10.8%), and hemipenal prolapse (1.3%) accounted for 29.4% of deaths. Multiple disease agents were responsible for 5.9% of deaths, and a cause for death could not be determined for 17.7% of individuals. Reproductive complications accounted for 11.5% of female deaths, but were identified in 23.1% of females. Although not necessarily the cause for death, gout was present in 18.8% of individuals. Differences in mortality between species, genders, and origin (captive‐bred vs. wild‐caught) were also evaluated. The results of this study corroborate earlier findings that identify bacterial infections, neoplasia, female reproductive disorders, gout, and endoparasitism as major sources of mortality in captive varanids. In light of these results, we discuss potential etiologies and offer recommendations for improving captive management practices in zoos. Zoo Biol. 32:152–162, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Evaluation of behavioral factors influencing reproductive success and failure in captive giant pandas

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) breeding center in Wolong, China, has experienced a recent dramatic increase in reproduction, with the population nearly tripling in the past 7 years. Much of this success comes from the development of behavioral management strategies, guided by the application of scientific knowledge. Here we present statistics that illuminate where reproductive problems have occurred, and discuss remedial actions taken with individual animals. During each year of this study (1996–2000), 93% of the females experienced estrus, 72% copulated, and 51% gave birth. Two‐thirds of the males mated each year. Most instances of mating failure were attributed to male behavior. In nearly half of mating failures, the male mounted but did not copulate. In about one‐third of mating failures, the male lacked sexual motivation, and showed excessive aggression 20% of the time. The males varied, and some were more likely to show interest in estrous females in neighboring enclosures and/or mate successfully during introductions. Copulation time was unrelated to reproductive success, but more insemination events (matings and artificial inseminations (AIs) combined) may be related to twinning. We suspect that temperament, stress, and husbandry practices play a role in isolated cases of reproductive failure in females, both pre‐ and postcopulation. Pregnancy or conception failure occurred in 35% of females inseminated naturally or through artificial insemination (AI). Behavioral management at Wolong is holistic and emphasizes biological relevance, including enrichment and well‐being, intensive monitoring of signs of estrus, and male–female familiarization and olfactory communication during the mating season. Zoo Biol 23:15–31, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Factors affecting reproduction in zoo‐housed geoffroy's tamarins(Saguinus geoffroyi)

The captive population of Geoffroy's tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi) has suffered a severe decline over the past 10 years. This population decline is attributed not to a failure to produce offspring, but rather to a failure to successfully rear offspring. To date, no studies have quantitatively examined the behaviors and hormones of this tamarin species in captivity. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine whether there were any discernable factors that could be correlated with failure to rear offspring in S. geoffroyi. Fifteen adult Geoffroy's tamarins (GTs) at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo (CMZ) were observed by means of instantaneous sampling on a focal animal. In addition, all instances of social behaviors were recorded. A factorial arrangement of treatments was used, as animals were divided between a colony‐housing situation and a non‐colony situation with hand‐reared and mother‐reared animals in both treatments. Repeated‐measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no interactions between the treatments, and no differences between rearing histories for the behaviors studied. However, animals housed in a colony setting exhibited higher levels of aggressive behaviors and lower activity levels compared to those in a non‐colony setting. There also was a trend for colony‐housed animals to huddle, scent‐mark, and exhibit sexual behaviors more often than non‐colony animals. First‐morning‐void urine samples were collected once per week, and assays for E₁C and PdG indicated that reproduction was not being suppressed. ANOVA conducted on samples assayed for excreted cortisol showed no differences in mean cortisol concentration by rearing histories or housing conditions. While these physiological indicators reveal no signs of stress, high levels of aggressive and territorial behaviors indicate social unrest in the colony‐housed condition, which may be contributing to the poor reproductive success of those individuals. Zoo Biol 22:545–559, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Retrospective study of morbidity and mortality of captive jaguars (Panthera onca) in North America: 1982–2002

One hundred seventy‐two medical records of captive jaguars (Panthera onca) were examined from 30 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions housing jaguars between 1982–2002. The study determined common causes of morbidity and mortality, and the influence of age, gender, and melengestrol‐acetate (MGA) exposure on these rates. The most common causes of morbidity in captive jaguars were found to be dental, gastrointestinal, integumentary, and musculoskeletal diseases. Prevalence of types of disease varied with age, with older animals experiencing a higher prevalence of multiple types of disease. Females developed reproductive disease more frequently than males, and the data suggest that MGA exposure increased the risk of developing female reproductive disease. The most common causes of mortality were reproductive diseases in females and musculoskeletal diseases in males. There was a high rate of neonate and pediatric mortality, primarily due to stillbirths or unexplained neonatal death, trauma, and pneumonia. Other diseases or clinical signs that seemed remarkable were a high prevalence of episodes of epistaxis among young, as well as old, jaguars. Based on these findings, management suggestions for the captive jaguar population are presented. Zoo Biol 0:1–12, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Density‐independent predation affects migrants and residents equally in a declining partially migratory elk population

Migration is expected to benefit individuals through exposure to higher quality forage and reducing predation rates more than non‐migratory conspecifics. Previous studies of partially migratory ungulates (with migrant and resident individuals) have focused on bottom–up factors regulating resident and migrant segments, yet differential predation between strategies could also be a density‐dependent regulatory mechanism. Our study tested for density‐dependence in mortality, as well as mechanisms of ­bottom–up or top–down regulation in the resident and migrant portions of the partially migratory Ya Ha Tinda elk population. We tested for density dependence in adult female and juvenile survival rates, and then discriminated between predator‐ and food‐regulation hypotheses by testing for density‐dependence amongst mortality causes for adult female elk. Notably, the population declined almost 70% from near previously published estimates of carrying capacity over 10 years, providing ideal conditions to test for density dependence. In contrast to predictions, we found only weak support for density dependence in adult survival and juvenile survival. We also found few differences between migrant and resident elk in adult or juvenile survival, though juvenile survival differences were biologically significant. Predation by humans and grizzly bears was density dependent, but similar between migratory strategies. Predation by wolves was the leading known cause of mortality, yet remained constant with declining elk density equally for both migrant and resident elk, indicating wolf predation was density‐independent. Instead of being strongly regulated by food or predation, we found adult female survival was driven by density‐independent predation and climatic factors. The few differences between migratory strategies suggest equivalent fitness payoffs for migrants and residents. This population is being limited by density‐independent predation leading to declines of both migratory strategies. Our results challenge classical predator–prey theory, and call for better integration between predator–prey and migration theory.     

Relationships among nutrition and reproduction and relevance for wild animals

This review discusses aspects of feeding ecology, nutrition, and dietary husbandry that are particularly relevant to reproductive success in wild animals. Emphasis has been placed on recently published literature. Special attention has been given to requirements for energy and protein and the unique roles of essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, selenium, and vitamins A, C, D, and E. Information has been drawn from research with mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, including the domestic and laboratory species that play such a large role in elucidating mechanisms connecting nutrition and reproduction. Zoo Biol 23:475–487, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.