氮肥施用时期及基追比例对土壤矿质氮含量时空变化及小麦产量和品质的影响

采用田间试验方法,研究了不同氮肥施用时期和基追比例对土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量变化及小麦产量和品质的影响.结果表明：土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量随着土层深度的增加而降低,不同氮肥施用时期和基追比例对0～20 cm土层土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量均有显著影响;与氮肥全部基施处理相比,氮肥施用时期后移和基追比例的增加,明显提高了氮肥吸收利用率,减少了小麦全生育期土壤氮素的表观盈余量,同时显著改善了小麦籽粒品质;但对籽粒产量影响不显著,孕穗期追施比例过大导致产量显著降低.在本试验条件下,综合考虑产量、品质和生态效益,以基肥∶拔节肥∶孕穗肥为5∶3∶2为最佳氮肥运筹方式.     

施氮时期对玉米土壤硝态氮含量变化及氮盈亏的影响

在“郑单 95 8”(9株 / m2 )组成的土 -植系统 ,研究了不施氮、基施氮 10叶展追氮、基施氮 吐丝期追氮和基施氮 乳熟期追氮共 4个处理下 0～ 2 0 0 cm的土壤 NO- 3- N含量在夏玉米生长期间的变化和土壤氮素的表观盈亏量 ,结果表明 :2 0 cm以上的土壤 NO- 3- N含量以大口期为界、2 0 cm以下的土壤 NO- 3- N含量以吐丝期为界前降后升。在 0～ 2 0 cm土层 ,与不施氮相比 ,施氮能增加土壤 NO- 3- N含量 ,而且吐丝期和乳熟至成熟阶段的 NO- 3- N含量在 10叶展期和吐丝期各自追氮后均显著增加。在 2 0～4 0 cm土层 ,乳熟期的 NO- 3- N含量施氮后明显比不施氮高。在 80 cm以下土层 ,施氮后的土壤 NO- 3- N含量明显比不施氮高 ;追氮期相比 ,后一追氮处理在乳熟期和成熟期的 NO- 3- N含量均比前一追氮处理明显增加 ,其中成熟期基施氮 乳熟期追氮处理在 16 0～ 2 0 0 cm土层的 NO- 3- N含量比基施氮 吐丝期追氮处理 (为 2 5 .3m g N/ kg(干土 ) )高 16 %。土壤氮素的表观盈余发生在吐丝期之前且 80 %以上盈余量出现在大口期前 ,表观亏损出现在吐丝期以后且其亏损量在乳熟期前后各占一半。经玉米季后 ,本试验中不施氮处理出现表观盈余 (为 5 6 .3kg N/ hm2 ) ;施氮后表观盈余量增加 ,主要是施氮减少了吐丝以后     

长江流域稻麦轮作条件下冬小麦适宜施氮量

为推动长江流域稻茬冬小麦氮肥的合理施用,研究了施氮量(0、120、210、300 kg·hm^-2,分别表示为N₀、N₁、N₂、N₃)对土壤硝态氮含量、土壤-植株系统氮素平衡和产量的影响。结果表明: 土壤剖面的硝态氮含量随施氮量的增加而增加,至拔节期,不同施氮处理的硝态氮均显著运移至60 cm土层。拔节后追施氮肥显著提高了N₁、N₂处理0～40 cm土层和N₃处理0～60 cm土层的硝态氮含量;而成熟期的硝态氮主要积累于0～40 cm土层。氮素平衡分析表明,氮素吸收、残留、损失因小麦不同生育阶段而异,越冬至拔节期是氮素表观损失的主要时期;小麦全生育期植株的氮素积累量、无机氮残留量和土壤氮素表观损失量均随施氮量的增加而显著增加。通过环境经济学的Coase原理和边际收益综合分析,稻茬小麦兼顾生产、生态和经济效益的适宜氮肥用量为250 kg·hm^-2,基肥与拔节肥的比例为5∶5,相应获得的籽粒产量为6840 kg·hm^-2。     

基施氮肥对冬小麦产量、氮肥利用率及氮平衡的影响

通过田间小区试验研究了氮肥一次基施对高肥力土壤上冬小麦产量,吸氮量及氮肥利用率的影响,旨在了解高肥力土训上减少基肥氮的可行性,结果表明,高肥力土壤上冬小麦产量对氮肥的反应不明显,而施用氮肥显著增加了冬小麦吸氮量,根据差值法计算结果,当施氮量为75,112．5和150kg/hm^2时冬小麦的氮肥利用率分别为16．0％,14．5％和13．5％,表明多达84％－86．5％以上的基肥氮未被作物吸收利用,氮平衡计算的结果进一步表明,未被当季小麦利用的肥料氮主要以无机氮的形式残留于0－1m土体中,当施氮量分别为75,112．5和150kg/hm2时氮肥的土壤残留率依次为83．3％,46．0％和58．8％,而相应的表观损失率为0．5％,38．9％和19．0％,由此可见,在高肥力土壤上应严格控制基肥氮的用量或不施基肥,否则将造成氮素资源的大量浪费。     

土壤硝态氮时空变异与土壤氮素表观盈亏研究Ⅰ.冬小麦

不同氮肥用量下对冬小麦生育期间土壤硝态氮时空变化特征及土壤氮素表观盈亏量的研究结果表明,氮肥用量不同,硝态氮分布特征有差异,并且随着冬小麦的生长,其变化也不同。在冬小麦快速生长阶段,作物吸收可在一定深度的土层出现硝态氮亏缺区。由于灌溉的影响,土壤表层硝态氮向深层淋洗严重,即使在低氮肥水平,土壤深层仍可观察到硝态氮含量升高现象,存在淋出2m土体的可能性。并且氮肥用量越高,土壤硝态氮含量越高,硝酸盐向深层淋洗也越严重,淋出2m土体的可能性和也相应增大;在冬小麦生长前期（播种－拔节）,即使在不施氮肥处理也有土壤氮素的表观盈余,随着施肥量的增加,在拔节－扬花也出现了土壤氮素表观盈余,而扬花后各个氮肥处理均出现土壤氮素的表观亏缺,氮肥用量越高,小麦一生中土壤表观氮盈余量越大,1m土体内平均最大盈余量达199.8kgN/hm^2。研究表明,土壤氮损失是盈余氮素的一个主要去向,而硝态氮淋洗是冬小麦生育期间土壤氮素损失的一个重要的途径。     

稻茬冬小麦氮肥吸收、残留和损失特性

为推进稻茬小麦氮肥合理施用,采取田间¹⁵N示踪技术研究了施氮量(0、150、225、300 kg·hm^-2,分别表示为N₀、N₁₅₀、N₂₂₅、N₃₀₀)对氮肥回收、残留、损失和籽粒产量的影响。结果表明: 随施氮量增加,小麦植株不同来源氮素积累量显著增加,氮肥回收率则显著下降。基肥氮以越冬至拔节期在植株中的积累量最高,追肥氮以拔节至开花期积累量最高;成熟期各处理追肥氮在植株中的积累量均高于基肥氮,N₁₅₀处理植株中土壤氮的积累量高于肥料氮,N₂₂₅、N₃₀₀处理呈相反趋势。随施氮量增加,成熟期0～100 cm土层氮肥残留量显著增加,肥料氮在60～100 cm土层残留比例逐渐升高。小麦全生育期氮肥损失量和损失率均随施氮量增加而增加,基肥氮损失量以播种至越冬期最高,追肥氮损失量以拔节至开花期最高。综合考虑籽粒产量,N₂₂₅处理可作为稻茬小麦氮肥推荐用量,相应的籽粒产量为6735 kg·hm^-2,氮肥回收率、土壤残留率和损失率分别为42.6%、34.0%和23.3%。     

直播旱作水稻的吸氮特征与土壤氮素表观盈亏

水稻旱作是水稻节水栽培中最有效的方式。通过田间试验研究旱作直播条件下水稻对氮素的吸收利用特征以及土壤矿质氮的动态变化 ,并对土壤氮素的表观盈亏量进行了估算。结果表明 ,直播旱作水稻较水作水稻更注重中后期对氮素养分的吸收 ,尤其是对土壤氮素的吸收 ;幼穗分化后水稻的土壤吸氮量占阶段吸氮总量的 6 9.5 % ,比水作水稻多 17.8%。对 0～ 4 0 cm土层土壤矿质氮含量时空变化的研究表明 ,直播旱作水稻生育前期土壤表层矿质态氮大量累积 ,在灌水和降雨的影响下 ,向下层的迁移增加 ,基肥施用后裸地处理 2 0～ 4 0 cm土层的矿质氮高达 10 4 kg N/hm2 。对水稻各生育期土壤氮素盈亏的计算结果表明 ,自分蘖盛期后旱作各处理都表现出土壤氮素不同程度上的表观亏缺 ,然而就全生育期土壤氮素盈余量而言 ,旱作处理平均高达 12 7kg N/hm2 ,生育前期氮肥的大量投入是氮素盈余的主要原因。本试验结果表明 ,直播旱作水稻生育前期对施用的肥料氮吸收很少 ,提高直播旱作水稻氮肥利用效率的关键在于减少生育前期肥料氮的投入     

土壤硝态氮时空变异与土教育界氮素表观盈亏Ⅱ.夏玉米

在不同氮肥用量下研究了夏玉米生育期间土壤硝态氮的时空变化特征,同时对不同生育阶段土壤氮素的盈余与亏缺进行了表观估算,结果表明：0-100cm土体内,夏玉米生中土壤硝态氮均表现为在中国土层含量低,上层和下层含量高,一般以表层最高,但受降雨的影响在高氮肥处理会出现下层高于表层的现象,施氮肥提高了土壤硝态氮含量,而且提高程度与用量成正相关,降雨时土壤硝态氮可随水下移,在干旱条件下也可随水上移,土壤硝态氮的运移不仅受土壤水分状况的影响,还取决于硝态氮含量,含量越高,向下移动的越深,淋失的可能性越大;在本试验条件下,土壤氮素盈余主要出现在夏玉米播种9叶展和9叶展-吐丝两个生育阶段,吐丝-收获则出现土壤氮素的亏缺,随着氮肥用量的增加,玉米一生中土壤氮素的表观盈余量明显增大,最高平均可达274.12kgN/hm^2。研究结果表明,土壤氮损失是盈余氮素的一个主要去向,而硝态氮淋洗是夏玉米生育期间土壤氮素损失的一个重要途径。     

施氮量和底施追施比例对土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量时空变化的影响

研究了高产栽培条件下,不同施氮量和底施追施比例对土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量时空变化的影响,同时计算了不同生育阶段土壤氮素的表观盈亏量.结果表明,与氮肥分期施用处理比较,氮肥全部用于拔节期追施处理降低了拔节期之前的土壤硝态氮含量,减少了拔节期之前土壤氮素的表观盈余量,降低了氮素向深层的淋洗;而挑旗期土壤硝态氮含量与氮肥分期施用处理无显著差异,但提高了土壤铵态氮含量;增加了成熟期0～60 cm土壤各土层土壤硝态氮含量和0～20 cm土壤铵态氮含量.氮肥全部用于拔节期追施的两处理间比较,在240 kg·hm^-2的基础上降低施氮量至168 kg·hm^-2,降低了挑旗期土壤硝态氮和铵态氮的含量,减少了挑旗期到成熟期土壤氮素的亏缺量,也使成熟期土壤硝态氮的含量降低.不同处理间籽粒产量和蛋白质产量无显著差异,施氮量为168 kg·hm^-2且全部用于拔节期追施的处理籽粒蛋白质含量最高.     

不同土壤肥力条件下施氮量对小麦氮肥利用和土壤硝态氮含量的影响

在土壤肥力不同的两块高产田上,利用15N示踪技术,研究了高产条件下施氮量对冬小麦氮肥吸收利用、籽粒产量和品质的影响,及小麦生育期间土壤硝态氮含量的变化.结果表明：1.成熟期小麦植株积累的氮素73.32%～87.27%来自土壤,4.51%～9.40%来自基施氮肥,8.22%～17.28%来自追施氮肥;随施氮量增加,植株吸收的土壤氮量减少,吸收的肥料氮量和氮肥在土壤中的残留量显著增加,小麦对肥料氮的吸收率显著降低;小麦对基施氮肥的吸收量、吸收率和基施氮肥在土壤中的残留量、残留率均显著小于追施氮肥,基施氮肥的损失量和损失率显著大于追施氮肥;较高土壤肥力条件下,植株吸收更多的土壤氮素,吸收的肥料氮量较少,土壤中残留的肥料氮量和肥料氮的损失量较高,不同地块肥料氮吸收、残留和损失的差异主要表现在基施氮肥上.2.当施氮量为105 kg/hm2时,收获后0～100cm土体内未发现硝态氮大量累积,随施氮量增加,0～100cm土体内硝态氮含量显著增加;施氮量大于195 kg/hm^2时,小麦生育期间硝态氮呈明显的下移趋势,土壤肥力较高地块,硝态氮下移较早,下移层次深.3.随施氮量增加,小麦氮素吸收效率和氮素利用效率降低,适量施氮有利于提高成熟期小麦植株氮素积累量、籽粒产量和蛋白质含量;施氮量过高籽粒产量和蛋白质含量不再显著增加,甚至降低;较高土壤肥力条件下,获得最高籽粒产量和蛋白质含量所需施氮量较低.     

土壤微生物生物量氮及其在氮素循环中作用

简述了土壤微生物生物量氮的含量及其影响因素,阐述了其在土壤氮素循环中的重要作用,着重讨论了其与可矿化氮、矿质氮、有机氮和固定态铵之间的关系,指出土壤微生物生物量氮与供氮因子间的关系在氮素循环研究中有非常重要的作用,可为调控土壤氮素的供应状况,减少氮素损失,提高氮肥利用率提供科学依据,并提出了需要深入研究的问题。     

氮肥形态对冬小麦根际土壤氮素生理群活性及无机氮含量的影响

采用大田盆栽方法研究了硝态氮肥、铵态氮肥、酰胺态氮肥3种氮肥形态对冬小麦品种豫麦50生育中后期(拔节期、开花期、花后14 d、花后28 d)根际土壤氮转化相关微生物活性、酶活性和根际土壤NH+4离子、NO-3离子含量的影响。结果表明:随着生育期的推进,除脲酶外,氨化细菌、硝化细菌、亚硝化细菌、反硝化细菌和蛋白酶活性变化的均为"倒V"型变化特征,以花后14 d活性最强;而脲酶活性在拔节期最强,并且其活性远大于其它微生物及酶。氮肥形态对根际土壤氮素生理群及无机氮的影响不同。酰胺态氮肥促进了根际氨化细菌、反硝化细菌、脲酶、蛋白酶的活性,而硝化细菌、亚硝化细菌在硝态氮肥条件下活性较强。除拔节期外,土壤中NH+4离子在铵态氮肥处理下含量较高,NO-3离子在酰氨态氮肥处理下含量较高。因此,酰胺态氮能够促进小麦根际土壤有机氮的分解,硝态氮肥可以促进土壤中氨的转化,以利于小麦根系的吸收与利用。氮肥形态主要是通过影响土壤中氮素生理类群及酶的活性,从而影响土壤中无机氮的含量。     

Available soil nitrogen in relation to fractions of soil nitrogen and other soil properties

The available N of 27 soils from England and Wales was assessed from the amounts of N taken up over a 6-month period by perennial ryegrass grown in pots under uniform environmental conditions. Relationships between availability and the distribution of soil N amongst various fractions were then examined using multiple regression. The relationship: available soil N (mg kg^–1 dry soil)=(N_min×0.672)+(N_inc×0.840)+(N_mom×0.227)–5.12 was found to account for 91% of the variance in available soil N, where N_min=mineral N, N_inc=N mineralized on incubation and N_mom=N in macro-organic matter. The N mineralized on incubation appeared to be derived largely from sources other than the macro-organic matter because these two fractions were poorly correlated. When availability was expressed in terms of available organic N as % of soil organic N (N_ao) the closest relationship with other soil characteristics was: N_ao=[N_inc×(1.395–0.0347×CN_mom]+[N_mom×0.1416], where CN_mom=CN ratio of the macro-organic matter. This relationship accounted for 81% of the variance in the availability of the soil organic N.The conclusion that the macro-organic matter may contribute substantially to the available N was confirmed by a subsidiary experiment in which the macro-organic fraction was separated from about 20 kg of a grassland soil. The uptake of N by ryegrass was then assessed on two subsamples of this soil, one without the macro-organic matter and the other with this fraction returned: uptake was appreciably increased by the macro-organic matter.     

陕西果园主要分布区氮素投入特点及氮负荷风险分析

为了研究果园氮素投入特点及分析氮素负荷特征,加强果园氮素管理、指导果农科学合理施肥。以陕西省果园主要分布区土壤氮素分析、农户投入调查等统计数据为基础,采用盈余法从果树种类和区域角度分析果园生产体系中的氮素输入输出特点及氮素盈余状况。结果表明,陕西果园主要分布区平均化肥氮投入量927.2 kg/hm2,主要来源于尿素和复合肥,其中尿素占调查样本量的40%以上;通过有机肥投入的氮仅为139.4 kg/hm2。94.8%的果园氮素处于盈余,总体平均盈余量为876.3 kg/hm2,其中氮盈余量超过500 kg/hm2的样本占57.5%,盈余量超过1 000 kg/hm2的样本亦占了27.3%。不同果园相比,猕猴桃园氮素投入及盈余量最高,分别为1 432.9、1 186.9 kg/hm2。不同区域果园比较,土壤氮环境负荷以关中灌区果园较高,达1046.1kg/hm2。果园氮素施用与养分盈余量之间存在极显著的正相关。陕西果园氮素的高量投入给土壤环境带来较大的氮素负荷,这对土壤环境和周围水体造成很大威胁。     

Variation in rates of nitrogen fixation in termites: response to dietary nitrogen in the field and laboratory

Abstract. Termites contribute nitrogen to their habitat through the nitrogenase activity of their bacterial symbionts. Previous studies indicate that high levels of dietary nitrogen suppress nitrogen fixation in termites. We examined the effects of dietary nitrogen on fixation rates in termites in both field and laboratory experiments. Ten field cplonies of Reticulitermes were collected and assayed for nitrogenase activity in July 1993, October 1993, January 1994, and April 1994. The nitrogen content of the wood collected with each colony was determined. There was no correlation between termite nitrogen fixation rates and the amount of nitrogen in their food for any of the four collection periods. In laboratory experiments, nitrogen fixation rates decreased when termites were fed filter paper treated with 2% and 5% ammonium nitrate or a 5% mixture of the amino acids proline, tryptophan and leucine, compared to water-treated controls. By contrast, the nitrogenase activity of termites fed filter paper treated with 2% and 5% ammonium phosphate, a mixture of the amino acids histidine, serine and aspartic acid, or 2% and 5% urea did not differ from the controls. However, nitrogenase activity increased when termites were fed with 2% uric acid. No clear association exists between termite nitrogen fixation and the nitrogen content of their food.     

氮硅添加对青藏高原高寒草甸土壤氮矿化的影响

为了解全球气候变化背景下氮沉降对土壤氮矿化的影响及硅添加对土壤氮矿化的促进作用, 该试验设置不同浓度的氮肥单独添加(0、20、40、60 g·m ^-2, 分别为对照CK、N20、N40、N60)以及与硅肥配施(硅酸4 g·m ^-2, Si4), 测定不同处理下0-20、20-40、40-60 cm土层土壤硝态氮含量、铵态氮含量、净硝化速率、净氨化速率以及净矿化速率。结果显示: (1)单独添加氮肥, 各土层土壤硝态氮和铵态氮含量均随处理浓度的增加而增加, 0-20 cm土层N20、N40、N60处理下土壤硝态氮和铵态氮分别较CK增加63.48%、126.04%、247.03%和80.66%、152.52%、244.56%; 随着土层深度增加, 土壤硝态氮、铵态氮含量均有下降, 20-40、40-60 cm土层较0-20 cm土层硝态氮含量分别平均减少53.90%、76.05%, 铵态氮含量分别平均减少48.62%、68.23%。(2)土壤净硝化速率、净氨化速率及净矿化速率随着氮肥浓度增加均呈上升趋势。相同氮肥添加浓度下, 土壤净硝化速率、净氨化速率和净矿化速率随着土层深度增加逐渐下降(除CK外)。(3)与单独添加氮肥比较, 氮硅肥配施, 土壤氮含量有显著提高, 在0-20 cm土层硝态氮和铵态氮较CK分别增加98.78%、192.62%、330.16%和99.96%、195.82%、306.32%, 20-40、40-60 cm土层也有类似趋势。同时, 氮硅配施促进了土壤氮矿化行为, 在0-20 cm土层, N60Si4处理下的土壤净硝化速率、净氨化速率较单独施氮时分别增加35.88%、27.41%。以上结果表明, 与单独氮肥添加相比, 氮硅配施不但能提高土壤氮含量, 而且能促进土壤氮的矿化作用, 对大气氮沉降有一定的缓解作用。     

嫁接与施氮对甜瓜产量和氮素吸收、利用的影响

通过裂区设计田间试验,主区为2种栽培方式(嫁接栽培和自根栽培),副区为4个施氮水平(0、120、240、360 kg N·hm^-2),研究了栽培方式和施氮量对甜瓜产量和品质、氮素运移和分配,以及氮素利用率的影响.结果表明: 嫁接栽培的甜瓜商品瓜产量较自根甜瓜提高了7.3%,可溶性固形物含量降低了0.16%～3.28%;生长前期嫁接栽培甜瓜氮素累积量较自根栽培低,结果后嫁接栽培氮素累积量显著升高,收获时植株氮素累积量较自根栽培增加了5.2%,果实中的氮素累积量提高了10.3%;嫁接栽培植株氮素向果实的转移量较自根栽培提高了20.9%,嫁接栽培果实中的氮素分配率在80%以上,自根栽培的分配率在80%以下;在同一施氮水平下,嫁接栽培的甜瓜氮素吸收利用率较自根栽培提高了1.3%～4.2%,氮素农学效率提高了2.73～5.56 kg·kg^-1,氮素生理利用率提高了7.39～16.18 kg·kg^-1;从商品瓜产量、氮素吸收量和氮素利用率综合考虑,施氮量240 kg·hm^-2为本区域嫁接甜瓜较适宜的氮素用量.     

Challenges of reducing excess nitrogen in Japanese agroecosystems

Fertilizer N use in Japan has decreased by about 30% from 1960 to 2000, while keeping a little increase in cereal yields. This has resulted in a significant increase in apparent nitrogen use efficiency, in particular for rice. On the other hand, national N Icad on the environment associated with the production and consumption of domestic and imported agricultural products has almost tripled during this period, mainly due to the dramatic increase of imports of food and feedstuffs. The environmental problems, including water and air pollution, caused by the excessive loads of N are serious public concerns and there is an urgent need to minimize N losses from agricultural production. In order to meet the necessity for reducing the environmental impacts by excess N, political and technological measures have been taken at regional and country levels. In recent years, the Japanese government has embarked on a series of policies to encourage transition to an environmentally conscious agriculture. Promoting proper material circulation with reducing fertilizer impact and utilizing biomass and livestock wastes is emphasized in these policies. The effectiveness of environmental assessment and planning for reducing regional and national N Icad has been discussed. Implementation of environmentally friendly technologies and management, both conventional and innovational, have been developed and adopted in Japanese agriculture. The effectiveness of conventional technologies in reducing environmental reactive N has been re-evaluated. Innovative technologies, such as use of controlled availability fertilizers and livestock wastes compost pellets, are being investigated and extended.A comprehensive approach that applies political and technological measures with closer cooperation is necessary to control reactive N in the environment.     

Challenges of reducing excess nitrogen in Japanese agroecosystems

Fertilizer N use in Japan has decreased by about 30% from 1960 to 2000, while keeping a little increase in cereal yields. This has resulted in a significant increase in apparent nitrogen use efficiency, in particular for rice. On the other hand, national N load on the environment associated with the production and consumption of domestic and imported agricultural products has almost tripled during this period, mainly due to the dramatic increase of imports of food and feedstuffs. The environmental problems, including water and air pollution, caused by the excessive loads of N are serious public concerns and there is an urgent need to minimize N losses from agricultural production. In order to meet the necessity for reducing the environmental impacts by excess N, political and technological measures have been taken at regional and country levels. In recent years, the Japanese government has embarked on a series of policies to encourage transition to an environmentally conscious agriculture. Promoting proper material circulation with reducing fertilizer impact and utilizing biomass and livestock wastes is emphasized in these policies. The effectiveness of environmental assessment and planning for reducing regional and national N load has been discussed. Implementation of environmentally friendly technologies and management, both conventional and innovational, have been developed and adopted in Japanese agriculture. The effectiveness of conventional technologies in reducing environmental reactive N has been re-evaluated. Innovative technologies, such as use of controlled availability fertilizers and livestock wastes compost pellets, are being investigated and extended. A comprehensive approach that applies political and technological measures with closer cooperation is necessary to control reactive N in the environment.