African Wild Cat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Felis lybica</Emphasis> Forster, 1780) in the Saratov Transvolga Region

Analysis of the area limits where African wild cat was found as well as of published data on its distribution in the Saratov Transvolga Region demonstrated that the local range of this species extended and its northwestern limit advanced almost 1000 km to the Volga zoogeographical boundary.     

Environmental factors determining the establishment of the African Long‐legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus cirtensis in Western Europe

Winters have become warmer under the impact of climate change, which has modified the phenology as well as the distribution ranges of birds. The African Long‐legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus cirtensis has recently colonized Europe via the Strait of Gibraltar. We aim to explain the native distribution of this species and to predict favourable areas in newly colonized parts of Europe using geospatial modelling to identify the most influential factors in this process. We applied the favourability function, a generalized linear model describing environmental favourability, for the presence/absence of breeding areas in northern Morocco and the southern Iberian Peninsula, according to a set of variables describing climate, topography, human activity, vegetation and purely spatial trends. A model was built using some known breeding sites in northern Morocco, and was used to forecast future suitable breeding areas in Europe. A second model was built with the available data for northern Morocco and Europe to explain the current distribution of breeding sites. Both models were assessed according to discrimination, calibration and parsimony criteria, and the influence of each factor was analysed using variation partitioning. We conclude that the Iberian Peninsula could provide new suitable areas for the species and facilitate its northward expansion. This result, together with the increasing number of records available, suggests that this species could soon spread throughout Europe. Steady temperatures and abundant but seasonally distributed precipitation showed the strongest predictive power in the models. This indicates a close relationship between the species’ distribution and climate in the study area, and suggests that this species finds its most favourable environments in the Mediterranean biome. Topography and vegetation, specifically cliffs and woods near hunting zones, point to a fine‐scale habitat selection for breeding. As the case of the African Long‐legged Buzzard is not a unique event, our results may be useful to determine whether a northward expansion of the Mediterranean biome could be followed by distribution shifts of bird species that have so far been restricted to Africa.     

Resource partitioning among three woodpecker species Dendrocopos spp. during the breeding season

Food composition, prey size utilization and foraging behaviour of three sympatric woodpecker species ( Dendrocopos major, D. medius, D. minor ) were studied in an oak forest near Budapest during the breeding season in 1983 and 1984. Considering these three aspects of feeding, the great spotted woodpecker is a generalist species. Food composition of this species resembled the arthropod supply on the bark of trees more than those of the other two species. The bark of the trees seems to be a relatively unproductive microhabitat in the breeding season, so woodpecker species use, to different degrees, the food supply of the foliage as well. The food and the foraging behaviour of the middle spotted woodpecker show that this species feeds on prey living both on barks and in the foliage; it occupies-an intermediate position between the great and the lesser spotted woodpeckers. Prey size did not correlate with predator size suggesting that woodpeckers adapted not to the summer resources but rather the winter ones.     

Book Reviews

Capsule The Spectacled Warbler shows a strictly Mediterranean distribution which is expected to expand northward in response to climate warming. To test this hypothesis, we defined the regular distribution of the species based on the literature and we tested whether: (1) spring temperatures in this area significantly increased between 1967 and 2010; (2) breeding attempts north of the regular range occurred progressively at northern latitudes. Both of these hypotheses were confirmed, supporting the hypothesis that the species is expanding northward because of climate warming.     

Isolation and characterization of 17 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus)

We describe primers and polymerase chain reaction conditions to amplify 17 di‐, tri‐ and tetranucleotide microsatellite loci from the three‐toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus). The primers were tested on 26 to 30 individuals from a single population breeding in southern Finland. The developed primer pairs yielded an average of 7.6 alleles per locus (range two to 15), an average observed heterozygosity of 0.69 (range 0.07 to 0.97), and an average polymorphic information content of 0.68 (range 0.06 to 0.90).     

Characteristics of plant communities containing St. John’s wort (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hypericum perforatum</Emphasis> L.) in the Saratov Region

Analysis of 28 plant communities containing Hypericum perforatum L. in five different biotope types has been performed in 17 districts of the Saratov Region. A total of 325 species from 197 genera of 52 vascular plant species have been recorded, with plants characteristic of forest-edge, steppe, and anthropogenic biotopes prevailing in most communities. It has been shown that H. perforatum at the southeastern boundary of its range behaves as an explerent species. The main factor limiting its growth in biotopes of a certain type is the degree of disturbance in the structure of corresponding communities rather than by their taxonomic composition.     

Metapopulation shift and survival of woodland birds under climate change: will species be able to track?

Climate change has been widely recognized as a key factor driving changes in species distributions. In this study we use a metapopulation model, with a window of suitable climate moving polewards, to explore population shifts and survival of woodland birds under different climate change scenarios and landscape configurations. Extinction vulnerability and expansion ability are predicted for the middle spotted woodpecker Dendrocopus medius and two alternative r‐K strategies under west European climate change scenarios of 1, 2 and 4°C temperature increase per century, corresponding to isotemperature velocities of ca 2, 4 and 8 km yr^?1. The simulated northward expansion of the bird's distribution is typically in the range of only 0–3 km yr^?1, in spite of 10–20 times larger maximum dispersal distances. This is too slow to track the climate change‐driven range contraction of 4 or 8 km yr^?1 in the south resulting in metapopulation extinction. Especially K‐selected (large‐bodied) species are vulnerable in the simulations. With a temperature increase of 4°C per century bird species go extinct within 104–178 yr. We present a simple approximation formula to predict the mean time to metapopulation extinction using 1) the rate of climate change, which determines the speed of range contraction in the south, 2) the size of the distribution range, which serves as a buffer against extinction, and 3) the northward expansion velocity, determined by species traits and landscape properties. Finally, our results indicate that the northward expansion rate is not constant. It will be initially lagged suggesting that recently observed expansion rates might be underestimations of future northward expansion rates.     

Climate change and the decline of a once common bird

Climate change is predicted to negatively impact wildlife through a variety of mechanisms including retraction of range. We used data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey and regional and global climate indices to examine the effects of climate change on the breeding distribution of the Rusty Blackbird (Euphagus carolinus), a formerly common species that is rapidly declining. We found that the range of the Rusty Blackbird retracted northward by 143 km since the 1960s and that the probability of local extinction was highest at the southern range margin. Furthermore, we found that the mean breeding latitude of the Rusty Blackbird was significant and positively correlated with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation with a lag of six years. Because the annual distribution of the Rusty Blackbird is affected by annual weather patterns produced by the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, our results support the hypothesis that directional climate change over the past 40 years is contributing to the decline of the Rusty Blackbird. Our study is the first to implicate climate change, acting through range retraction, in a major decline of a formerly common bird species.     

Gone with the forest: Assessing global woodpecker conservation from land use patterns

Aim

As a result of their ecological traits, woodpeckers (Picidae, Aves) are highly sensitive to forest cover change. We explored the current land cover in areas of high species richness of woodpeckers to determinate regions where urgent conservation actions are needed. In addition, we identified woodpecker species that are sensitive to forest loss and that have high levels of human habitat modification and low levels of protection (through protected areas) in their distribution ranges.

Location

Global.

Methods

We joined available range maps for all extant 254 woodpecker species with information of their conservation status and tolerances to human habitat modifications and generated a richness map of woodpecker species worldwide. Then, we associated this information (the richness pattern and individual species’ maps) with land cover and protected areas (PAs) maps.

Result

We found that the foremost woodpecker species richness hotspot is in Southeast Asia and is highly modified. At the second species richness hotspot in the eastern Andes, we observed a front of deforestation at its southern extreme and a greater deforested area in its northern extreme but most of its area remains with forest coverage. At the species level, 17 species that are sensitive to forest modification experience extensive deforestation and have low extents of PAs in their ranges.

Main conclusions

The most diverse woodpecker hotspots are mostly occupied by human‐modified landscapes, and a large portion of the species there avoids anthropogenic environments. The level of representation of woodpecker species in PAs is low as a global general pattern, although slightly better in Asia. Our global analysis of threats to woodpecker from land use patterns reiterates the urgent conservation needs for Southeast Asian forests. Finally, based on our results, we recommend a re‐evaluation for inclusion in the Red List of five woodpecker species.

     

Patterns in the geographic ranges of the world's woodpeckers

We used data on the world's woodpeckers to test for patterns in the geographic distributions of a single group of closely related species. The frequency distribution of woodpecker geographic range sizes is approximately lognormal. Most variation in range sizes is explained by differences between species within genera; that is, range size seems to be an evolutionarily labile trait. The largest woodpecker ranges are found in Eurasia, both when absolute differences are compared and when range size is measured as a proportion of estimated available habitat. Notably, there is a negative relationship between the mean range sizes attained by species in a genus or tribe in South America and the mean ranges attained by species in the same tribe or genus in North America. Large-bodied species tend to be more widely distributed and to live at higher latitudes, but both tendencies disappear if the taxonomic relatedness of species is controlled for. Species living at high latitudes also tend to be more widely distributed. This relationship seems largely due to the effect of North American woodpeckers, which show it even when the taxonomic relatedness of species is controlled. Small continents generally have more woodpecker species than do large ones. Woodpecker geographic range sizes are smaller the more woodpecker species inhabit an area. Species show less overlap in their geographic ranges with species of similar than with species of dissimilar body size. The implications of these results for our understanding of patterns in geographic range sizes are discussed.     

中国长臂虾总科的动物地理学特点

本文讨论了长臂虾总科在中国分布的3个科,即拟贝隐虾科、叶颚虾科和长臂虾科的属、种在中国的分布情况及区系特点。拟贝隐虾科和叶颚虾科种类较少,分布于热带海域,我国分别在南沙群岛和西沙群岛发现1属1种和3属3种,均为广布的常见种。长臂虾科是本总科中种类最多、分布最广、十分常见的科,包括2亚科102属,世界性分布,海洋、淡水均有,我国大量分布。其起源中心应在印度－西太平洋暖水区,一部分浅海沿岸种经河口进入淡水水域, 大量发展,很少种可分布至温带区边缘;另一部分在热带珊瑚礁环境大量发展,并与许多动物类群共栖或共生。长臂虾亚科基本上是浅海－淡水自由生活类群,我国已记录9属61种,主要分布于南部,多数为东洋界热带和亚热带种,分别属东洋界(淡水)和印度－西太平洋区(海水、半咸水);而极少数种分布至北方,温带性的淡水种有2种白虾,1种小长臂虾和仅见于东北部的条纹长臂虾,属于古北界区系(淡水),海水种有黄、东海的敖氏长臂虾及细指长臂虾,属于北太平洋温带区系(海水、半咸水)。隐虾亚科全部为海洋种,主要分布在热带、亚热带海域,以珊瑚礁为主要栖息地,大部分分布于印度－西太平洋海域,80%以上的种类或多或少与其他海洋生物共栖,自由生活的种很少。根据推论,隐虾类的起源中心应在印度－西太平洋热带水域的珊瑚礁环境, 并在这一水域得到了充分的分化与发展,分别适应与腔肠动物、双壳类软体动物、海绵动物、棘皮动物和海鞘类被囊动物共栖生活;而热带美洲的类群则是在隐虾类演化到可与石珊瑚类共栖时由印度－西太平洋水域扩散过去的, 共栖宿主仅涉及腔肠动物和棘皮动物。我国南海水域已发现31属96种,极少数种也分布到东海,属于印度－西太平洋热带水域珊瑚礁区系。     

Adaptation of the flora to anthropogenic impact in the southern Volga Upland

Analysis of the flora has been performed in the main types of anthropogenic biotopes in the south of the Volga Upland (within the Saratov Region), including urbanized areas, technogenic sites, forest plantations, and agrocenoses. The results show that only 908 out of 1379 vascular plant species listed for the study region occur in such biotopes, their number reaching a maximum of 636 in technogenic sites and decreasing to a minimum of 438 in agrocenoses. It is hypothesized that the aboriginal flora of the southern Volga Upland has a buffer capacity and will retain its basic structural pattern even if two-thirds of its constituent species are lost.     

Statistical Analysis of the Influence of a Disturbance Factor on Formation of the Spatial Structure of the Great Bustard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Otis tarda</Emphasis> L.) (Otididae,Aves) Population in the Trans-Volga Region

This paper examines the influence of the location of settlements, railroads, and highways on the spatial structure of the Otis tarda population in the Trans-Volga region that was studied in the years 1998–2016 in a model area of 12000 km² that is located in the southern part of the Saratov Trans-Volga region. The zone of the impact made by our estimated disturbance factor due to the movement of people and a variety of ground vehicles along various-purpose roads on the territorial distribution of bustards in autumn can be denoted as a 300–500 m width band on both sides of the transport communications. Shelterbelts that were created along transport communications render a beneficial effect on the distribution of O. tarda and reduce the influence of the disturbance factor. Furthermore, crop rotation fields with side sizes of more than 1 km can be considered a factor that compensates for the anxiety of birds. We have found that in the Saratov Trans-Volga region, because of the large size of crop rotation fields and significant development of roadside and shelter belts, no special measures are required to protect O. tarda such as restrictions on the movement of people and vehicles over the territory where this species lives.     

Spatio‐temporal shifts of the dynamic Cape fur seal population in southern Africa,based on aerial censuses (1972–2009)

A time series of aerial censuses of Cape fur seal colonies, spanning four decades (1972–2009) and three countries (South Africa, Namibia, and Angola), was analyzed to assess spatio‐temporal changes in population numbers. A weighted quantile regression approach was used to estimate trends in pup counts that were used as proxies for numbers of older animals at breeding colonies. There was a 74% increase in the number of breeding colonies over the study period, from 23 in 1973 to 40 in 2009. There was also a significant northward shift in the distribution of the breeding population. This was largely attributable to events in the northern part of the population's range coinciding with Namibia, where seal numbers declined at most colonies in the south of Namibia while several new breeding colonies developed in the northern part of Namibia and one in southern Angola. Despite range expansion and the development of new colonies, the overall size of the population in 2009 was similar to that of the early 1990s, according to the pup count models. Potential mechanisms for the observed changes, and their management implications, are discussed.     

The white-backed woodpecker: umbrella species for forest conservation planning?

In northern Europe, a long history of land use has led to profound changes within forest ecosystems. The white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) is one of several specialised forest species whose populations have declined. Conservation management directed at this species’ habitat has made it a de facto umbrella species for conservation of the biodiversity associated with forests rich in deciduous trees and dead wood. We assessed empirically the value of the white-backed woodpecker as an indicator and umbrella species in central Sweden. Occurrence of the woodpecker in breeding bird atlas squares (5 × 5 km²) indicated high species richness of forest birds, particularly species of special conservation concern, which included on average 13% more species in squares with than without the woodpecker. The number of red-listed cryptogam species expected to benefit from conservation actions directed at white-backed woodpecker habitats was higher in squares where the woodpecker bred compared to where is was absent. However, no such pattern was found for red-listed beetles, a group with very few records in the studied squares. White-backed woodpecker occurrence was positively associated with the current area of deciduous and mixed forest of high conservation value. Considering its indicator value, its specialised habitat requirements and its potential as a communication tool, using the white-backed woodpecker as an umbrella species may provide a coarse filter for the conservation of several other deciduous forest species. However, focusing solely on white-backed woodpecker habitat may not provide for the conservation of all such species, which stresses the need for a suite of complementary planning approaches.     

Climatic limits for the present distribution of beech (Fagus L.) species in the world

Aim Beech (Fagus L., Fagaceae) species are representative trees of temperate deciduous broadleaf forests in the Northern Hemisphere. We focus on the distributional limits of beech species, in particular on identifying climatic factors associated with their present range limits. Location Beech species occur in East Asia, Europe and West Asia, and North America. We collated information on both the southern and northern range limits and the lower and upper elevational limits for beech species in each region. Methods In total, 292 lower/southern limit and 310 upper/northern limit sites with available climatic data for all 11 extant beech species were collected by reviewing the literature, and 13 climatic variables were estimated for each site from climate normals at nearby stations. We used principal components analysis (PCA) to detect climatic variables most strongly associated with the distribution of beech species and to compare the climatic spaces for the different beech species. Results Statistics for thermal and moisture climatic conditions at the lower/southern and upper/northern limits of all world beech species are presented. The first two PCA components accounted for 70% and 68% of the overall variance in lower/southern and upper/northern range limits, respectively. The first PCA axis represented a thermal gradient, and the second a moisture gradient associated with the world‐wide distribution pattern of beech species. Among thermal variables, growing season warmth was most important for beech distribution, but winter low temperature (coldness and mean temperature for the coldest month) and climatic continentality were also coupled with beech occurrence. The moisture gradient, indicated by precipitation and moisture indices, showed regional differences. American beech had the widest thermal range, Japanese beeches the most narrow; European beeches occurred in the driest climate, Japanese beeches the most humid. Climatic spaces for Chinese beech species were between those of American and European species. Main conclusions The distributional limits of beech species were primarily associated with thermal factors, but moisture regime also played a role. There were some regional differences in the climatic correlates of distribution. The growing season temperature regime was most important in explaining distribution of Chinese beeches, whilst their northward distribution was mainly limited by shortage of precipitation. In Japan, distribution limits of beech species were correlated with summer temperature, but the local dominance of beech was likely to be dependent on snowfall and winter low temperature. High summer temperature was probably a limiting factor for southward extension of American beech, while growing season warmth seemed critical for its northward distribution. Although the present distribution of beech species corresponded well to the contemporary climate in most areas, climatic factors could not account for some distributions, e. g., that of F. mexicana compared to its close relative F. grandifolia. It is likely that historical factors play a secondary role in determining the present distribution of beech species. The lack of F. grandifolia on the island of Newfoundland, Canada, may be due to inadequate growing season warmth. Similarly, the northerly distribution of beech in Britain has not reached its potential limit, perhaps due to insufficient time since deglaciation to expand its range.     

On the distribution of riffle minnow <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alburnoides bipunctatus</Emphasis> (Cyprinidae) in the Volga Basin

On the basis of analysis of our own and published data on the distribution of the riffle minnow Alburnoides bipunctatus rossicus in rivers of the Volga Basin, the eastern boundary of the range of this subspecies included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is specified. It is shown that A. bipunctatus is widely distributed in the entire basin of the Middle Volga and Kama, except the extreme northeast (mountain tributaries of the Upper Kama upstream the Chusovaya River), and rarely occurs in the Upper Volga Basin. The Tereshka River (Ulyanov oblast) and Chapaevka (Saratov oblast) should be considered the southern boundary of the distribution of the subspecies in the Volga Basin. Since the mid-1990s, a drastic and uniform increase in the number of findings and the abundance of A. bipunctatus is recorded. This species has become a common fish in many rivers and, in some cases, a dominant species in river ichthyocenoses. Possible causes of these changes are discussed, and a conclusion is made concerning the need of the revision of the status of the subspecies A. bipunctatus rossicus.     

Land‐use changes may explain the recent range expansion of the Black‐shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus in southern Europe

Occasional observations of Black‐shouldered Kites Elanus caeruleus in Europe date back to the mid‐19th century, but it was only recorded as a breeding species in the early 1960s in Portugal and a few years later in neighbouring Spain. This recent colonization, possibly from Africa where the species is abundant, may be due to climate change, land‐use changes in southern Europe, or both. As a first step to understanding this range expansion process we have developed a habitat selection model using data from the current strongholds of its European distribution. Comparing the proportion of different habitat types around 46 breeding sites and 45 randomly chosen plots, we have found that the area of cultivated parklands known as dehesas in Spain is a strong predictor of the current distribution range of breeding pairs of Black‐shouldered Kites. Specifically, the percentage of dehesas with planted cereal and a low density of trees (i.e. < 7 trees/ha and thus a savannah‐like habitat) within the study plots explained 44.6% of the residual deviance in our model. The minimal adequate model classified 81.3% of breeding sites and random plots correctly. Our results suggest that Black‐shouldered Kites may have taken advantage of the gradual increase of cultivated dehesas in the second half of the 20th century to expand its range in Europe. This particular type of dehesa is structurally similar to the African savannahs where the species thrives and may offer a higher density of rodents than traditional dehesas, which primarily contain pastureland for livestock ranching.     

Application of enzyme immunoassay for detection of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Azospirillum</Emphasis> in soil suspensions

The enzyme immunoassay of soil suspensions was performed using antibodies against the lipopolysaccharides of Azospirillum brasilense model strains in order to assess the monthly population dynamics of the A. brasilense Sp245 introduced into the soil samples in laboratory simulation experiments and to determine the abundance of azospirilla in the various soils of the Saratov oblast. In laboratory simulation experiments (a sample of southern chernozem was used), the maximum amount of the antigen in question was detected in soil suspensions on day 7 of the one-month experiment on the introduction of bacterial cells into soil samples. Analysis of the major soil types of the Saratov oblast (saline, alluvial, and grey forest soils, as well as typical and southern chernozem) revealed the predominance of azospirilla antigens of the Sp245 serotype; significant amounts of the serotype Sp7 antigens were detected in southern chernozem.     

Short-necked plesiosaurs of the family Polycotylidae from the Campanian of the Saratov Region

Fragments of the anterior part of a mandibular rostrum and a maxillary bone of the plesiosaur Polycotylidae indet. from the Karyakino and Beloe Ozero localities of the Saratov Region (Upper Cretaceous, Campanian) are described. The specimens belong to a relatively long-snouted polycotylid with a mandibular symphysis incorporating 13 pairs of teeth. A unique feature of this plesiosaur is the fact that, in the symphysis, the splenial extends to the very anterior end of the rostrum. The polycotylid from the Campanian of the Saratov Region is probably closely related or identical to Georgiasaurus from the Santonian of the Penza Region, in which structural details of the mandibular symphysis remain uncertain.