Identification of rice cultivars resistant to Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and their use in an integrated management program

The rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, is the most destructive insect pest of rice in the United States and is a particularly severe pest in Louisiana. The current management program for this insect in Louisiana relies heavily on insecticides, most notably the seed treatment fipronil (Icon). Diversification of the management program by incorporation of alternative strategies is needed to improve the effectiveness and long-term stability of the program. In the three experiments reported here, three components of a diversified management program for the rice water weevil in Louisiana--host plant resistance, treatment of seeds with Icon, aid the cultural practice of delayed flooding--were investigated. Comparison of the densities of weevil larvae on the roots of several commercial cultivars indicated that the long-grain cultivar 'Jefferson' was more resistant to infestation by the rice water weevil than the other cultivars. The medium-grain cultivars 'Bengal', 'Earl' and 'Mars' and the long-grain variety 'Cocodrie' were the most susceptible to infestation. Comparison of yield data from untreated plots and plots treated with Icon indicated that the long-grain cultivars Cocodrie, Lemont, and Jefferson were more tolerant of weevil injury than the other cultivars. A 2-wk delay in flooding was associated with yield benefits in plots not treated with Icon. Treatment of seeds with Icon controlled weevils in all three screening experiments. The implications of these results for the development of an integrated management program for the rice water weevil are discussed.     

Effects of nitrogen fertilizer applied before permanent flood on the interaction between rice and rice water weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Nitrogen fertilizer was applied to rice, Oryza sativa L., before permanent flood to determine the interaction between rice and the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), through a series of experiments conducted over a 3-yr period in Texas and Louisiana. Both absolute and relative percentage of yield loss because of L. oryzophilus feeding was not affected by fertilizer rates in the Texas experiment. Absolute yield loss increased with nitrogen rates in 2001 and 2002 in the Louisiana experiment; however, percentage of yield loss was not affected. This finding suggests that nitrogen rate does not affect tolerance of rice to L. oryzophilus injury. In the Texas experiment, differences were detected for ratoon crop yield among nitrogen rates and insecticide that were applied at preflood on the main crop, indicating a carryover of fertilizer and insecticide effects from the main to the ratoon crop. L. oryzophilus populations tended to increase with nitrogen fertilizer in the Louisiana experiment. Our results show that farmers should not increase preflood nitrogen fertilizer to increase tolerance of rice to L. oryzophilus injury.     

The effects of feeding by the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, on the growth and yield components of rice, Oryza sativa

Abstract 1 The effects of feeding by larvae of the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, on the growth and yield components of rice, Oryza sativa, were evaluated using four varieties of rice, ‘Cocodrie’, ‘Cypress’, ‘Bengal’ and ‘XP1003’, over 2 years. 2 Both adults and larvae of L. oryzophilus feed on rice plants, but it is feeding by the larval stage that causes economic losses. Feeding by L. oryzophilus larvae resulted in extensive damage to root systems. Pruning of root systems resulted in a decrease in tiller number and shoot biomass of rice plants in the vegetative stage of growth. 3 Yield losses were due to a combination of decreases in panicle densities, numbers of grains per panicle, and grain weights. Decreases in panicle densities were a direct result of the reductions in tiller numbers. Reductions in numbers of grains per panicle and grain weights probably resulted from decreases in shoot biomass. 4 Injury by rice water weevil larvae is chronic. The tillering stage of rice suffered the majority of weevil damage, but the growth effects were not manifested until later.     

Does mother know best? The preference–performance hypothesis and parent–offspring conflict in aboveground–belowground herbivore life cycles

1. A substantial amount of research on host‐plant selection by insect herbivores is focused around the preference–performance hypothesis (PPH). To date, the majority of studies have primarily considered insects with aboveground life cycles, overlooking insect herbivores that have both aboveground and belowground life stages, for which the PPH could be equally applicable. 2. This study investigated the factors influencing the performance of the root‐feeding vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) larvae and whether this was linked to the oviposition behaviour of the maternal adult living aboveground. 3. Maternal insects feeding aboveground reduced root biomass by 34% and increased root carbon by 4%. Larvae feeding on plants subjected to aboveground herbivory had reduced mass. Irrespective of the presence of maternal herbivory, larval mass was positively correlated with root biomass. 4. Larval mass was also reduced by conspecific larvae, previously feeding on roots (19% reduction). However, the mechanism underpinning this effect remains unclear, as in contrast to maternal herbivory aboveground, prior larval feeding did not significantly affect root biomass or root carbon concentrations. 5. Maternal insects did not distinguish between plants infested with larvae and those that were free of larvae, in terms of their egg‐laying behaviour. Conversely, maternal insects tended to lay eggs on plants with smaller root systems, a behaviour that is likely to negatively affect offspring performance. 6. The PPH is not supported by our findings for the polyphagous vine weevil feeding on the host plant raspberry (Rubus idaeus), and in fact our results suggest that there is the potential for strong parent–offspring conflict in this system.     

Plant‐mediated interactions among above‐ground and below‐ground life stages of a root‐feeding weevil

1. Interactions among herbivores mediated by plant responses to herbivore injury may have large impacts on herbivore population densities. Responses may persist for weeks after injury and may affect not only the initial (inducing) herbivore, but also herbivores that are spatially or temporally separated from the initial attacker. 2. In many plant–insect interactions, multiple life stages of the insect may be associated with the same plant, and these various stages may interact indirectly with one another via induced responses. The rice water weevil (RWW), Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus, a serious global pest of rice, is one such insect. A series of experiments were performed with root‐feeding larvae and leaf‐feeding adults of the RWW using three conventional rice varieties. 3. The first objective of this study was to test whether RWW adult feeding on rice leaves resulted in altered oviposition by subsequent adults. The hypothesis for the first objective was that RWW adult feeding would decrease plant suitability, resulting in reduced oviposition by subsequent adults. 4. The second objective was to test whether injury by RWW larvae to rice roots resulted in altered oviposition by subsequent adults. The hypothesis for the second objective was that below‐ground RWW larval feeding would decrease plant suitability of rice to above‐ground RWW adults, resulting in decreased oviposition. 5. Results provided inconsistent support for the first hypothesis, indicating that responses differed among combinations of variety and injury level. Conversely, consistent support for the second hypothesis was found, indicating that larval feeding on roots decreased suitability of rice plants for oviposition.     

Flooding influences ovipositional and feeding behavior of the rice water weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, is the most destructive insect pest of rice in the United States. As part of an effort to develop strategies to manage this pest, the ovipositional and feeding habits of L. oryzophilus on rice plants subjected to different flooding treatments were characterized in greenhouse studies. Presence and depth of flood had a direct influence on the ovipositional behavior of weevils in no-choice studies. More eggs were found in flooded plants than in unflooded plants. Moreover, plants flooded to a depth of 5.1 cm received more eggs than plants flooded to depths of 1.3 or 10.2 cm. Presence and depth of flood influenced both the proportion of females that oviposited in plants and the number of eggs laid by those females that did oviposit. In choice studies, female weevils showed a marked ovipositional preference for plants flooded to a depth of 10.2 cm over unflooded plants and plants flooded to a depth of 1.3 cm. In separate choice experiments, adult rice water weevils fed more on flooded plants than on unflooded plants. In a third set of experiments, flooded plants were taller and had higher concentrations of 10 of 13 plant nutrients than unflooded plants. Thus, flooding may influence rice water weevil behavior both directly, by acting as a stimulus for feeding or oviposition, and indirectly, by inducing changes in the suitability of rice plants for feeding or oviposition. These data suggest that it may be possible to manipulate populations of weevils in rice by changing water management practices.     

Plant-mediated interactions between the rice water weevil and fall armyworm in rice

Greenhouse studies were conducted to investigate plant-mediated interactions between an above-ground and a below-ground herbivore when sharing a common host plant, rice (Oryza sativa L). Two common pests of rice were used: the rice water weevil (RWW), Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, as the root herbivore, and the fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) as the foliage-feeding herbivore. Rice water weevil larval performance was assessed by measuring larval density and average weight in response to different levels of defoliation by FAW larvae. The reciprocal experiment was done to evaluate FAW performance (growth rate) in response to RWW feeding. Severe defoliation by FAW decreased RWW densities by 32% and reduced larval weights by 48% compared to larvae on roots of non-defoliated plants. Effects in the converse experiments were not as strong. FAW growth rates were reduced 9–37% when feeding on rice leaves from plants damaged by RWW compared to larvae feed leaves from the no damage treatment. These reciprocal negative effects show that RWW and FAW are potential competitors when sharing a rice plant. Because RWW and FAW did not interact directly, competition was plant-mediated.     

Evaluation of the potential role of glufosinate-tolerant rice in integrated pest management programs for rice water weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The impact of a herbicide-tolerant rice, Oryza sativa L., variety was assessed for its resistance to rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and its place in current integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the resistance of a glufosinate-tolerant rice variety and its glufosinate-susceptible parent line Bengal to the rice water weevil in the presence and absence of glufosinate applications. The LC50 dose-response and behavioral effects of glufosinate on adult rice water weevils also were studied. Field studies investigated the impacts of glufosinate-tolerant rice on rice water weevil management in the presence and absence of glufosinate under early and delayed flood conditions. Greenhouse studies demonstrated that in the absence of glufosinate, oviposition was 30% higher on the glufosinate-tolerant rice line than on Bengal rice or on glufosinate-tolerant line treated with recommended rates of commercially formulated glufosinate. Applications of glufosinate to glufosinate-tolerant rice resulted in a 20% reduction in rice water weevil larval densities compared with nontreated glufosinate-tolerant rice. The LC50 of glufosinate against adult rice water weevil was nearly 2 times the concentration recommended for application to glufosinate-tolerant rice. There was no difference in the amount of leaf area consumed by adult rice water weevils on glufosinate-treated and nontreated foliage. The absence of direct toxicity of glufosinate to rice water weevil at recommended glufosinate use rates and lack of behavioral effects suggest that the reduction in rice water weevil densities observed after glufosinate applications resulted from herbicide-induced plant resistance. Field experiments showed that neither rice variety nor herbicide use affected larval densities; however, delaying flood and applying insecticide effectively reduced numbers of rice water weevil larvae.     

Response of Pisum sativum (Fabales: Fabaceae) to Sitona lineatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) infestation: effect of adult weevil density on damage, larval population, and yield loss

Sitona lineatus L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is an invasive pest in North America and its geographical range is currently expanding across the Canadian prairies. Adults and larvae of S. lineatus feed upon the foliage and root nodules, respectively, of field pea, Pisum sativum L. (Fabales: Fabaceae), and may contribute to economic losses when population densities are high. Integrated pest management (IPM) programs that incorporate economic thresholds should be used to manage S. lineatus populations in a sustainable manner. The impact of nitrogen fertilizer on field pea yield and the relationships between adult weevil density and above- and below-ground damage and yield were investigated in southern Alberta, Canada using exclusion cages on field pea plots. In each cage, 32 field pea plants were exposed to weevil densities ranging from zero to one adult weevil per plant. Nitrogen-fertilized plants yielded 16% more than unfertilized plants. Nitrogen-fertilized plants had fewer root nodules than unfertilized plants, but fertilizer had no effect on foliar feeding by S. lineatus. Adult density affected foliar feeding damage, with increases in above-ground damage associated with increases in S. lineatus density. Adult density did not affect root nodule damage, larval density, foliar biomass or seed weight. Overall, these results indicate that terminal leaf damage may be used to estimate adult weevil density but cannot be used to predict larval density or yield loss. Further research is required to better understand the impact of larval damage on yield and determine if economic thresholds can be developed using data from large-scale production systems.     

Effects of defoliation on the resistance and tolerance of rice,Oryza sativa,to root injury by the rice water weevil,Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus

Understanding plant‐mediated interactions in agricultural systems may facilitate the development of novel and improved management practices, which is important, as management of these insects is currently heavily reliant on insecticides. The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae, Prodeniini), is a sporadic pest of rice fields in the southern USA. In southwestern Louisiana, this defoliating insect typically attacks rice early in the growth season, before fields are flooded. Defoliation by fall armyworm larvae may trigger increased expression of plant defenses, which may result in increased resistance to subsequent herbivores. The rice water weevil (RWW), Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Stenopelmini), enters rice fields as an adult both before and after flooding, but oviposition and larval infestation occur only after fields are flooded. RWW may be affected by changes in plant resistance caused by fall armyworm defoliation before flooding. The objectives of this study were to investigate the plant‐mediated effects of natural and artificial defoliation on population densities of RWW larvae after flooding and on the ability of rice plants to compensate for root injury by RWW larvae. In the 2015 season, fall armyworm defoliation before flooding resulted in reduced RWW densities after flooding. However, in 2016 no significant effects of fall armyworm defoliation on densities of RWW larvae were detected. Similarly, mechanical defoliation of rice before flooding did not affect RWW densities after flooding. Although lowest yields were observed in plots subjected to both root injury and defoliation, there was little evidence of a greater than additive reduction in yields from simultaneous injury. These results suggest a lack of plant‐mediated interactions among these two pests in rice in the southern USA.     

Sitona weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as agents for rapid transfer of nitrogen from white clover (Trifolium repens L.) to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)

The effects of root feeding by larvae of Sitona hispidulus (F.) (a common weevil pest of white clover) on the rate of transfer of nitrogen between plants of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) were investigated using a nutrient slant board technique. Clover plants, labelled with ¹⁵N were grown adjacent to ryegrass plants and were either infested with Sitona larvae or not infested. Ryegrass plants associated with the infested clover plants had a significantly higher dry matter yield and nitrogen content (75% and 74% respectively) than the uninvested plants, after 33 days exposure to insect herbivory. It was concluded that root feeding insects could play an important role in the cycling of nitrogen in grass/clover swards.     

The effects of banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, damage on highland banana growth, yield and stand duration in Uganda

A trial to determine yield losses in East African highland banana (cv. Atwalira) to banana weevil was run between 1994 and 2001 at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture's Sendusu Farm in Namulonge, Uganda. Banana weevil adults were released into weevil‐infestation plots, while weevils were excluded from controls by trapping and later application of chlorpyrifos. Weevil migration and reproduction in control plots reduced treatment differences in damage during the first 3 yr. Thereafter, weevil damage was heavy in infested plots and negligible in controls. High levels of weevil attack resulted in reduced bunch weights, plant losses, mat disappearance and fewer harvested bunches, with estimated yield losses averaging 42% over the final 4 yr of the trial. The data confirm the importance of banana weevil as an important production constraint of highland banana and support farmer reports that banana weevil attack contributes to shortened plantation life.     

Effect of root feeding by Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae on leaf gas exchange and growth of three ornamental tree species

Diaprepes abbreviatus L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), feeds on a variety of ornamental plants grown in southern Florida. Studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of root feeding by D. abbreviatus larvae on leaf gas exchange and growth of three ornamental tree species commonly grown in southern Florida that are known hosts of this weevil: green buttonwood, Conocarpus erectus L.; live oak, Quercus virginiana Mill.; and pygmy date palm, Phoenix roebelenii O'Brien. These hosts were grown in containers and infested with weevil larvae. Net CO2 assimilation, transpiration, and stomatal conductance of CO, were measured monthly. Leaf, stem, and root fresh and dry weights of each species also were determined. In one of two tests, larval root feeding significantly reduced net CO2 assimilation, transpiration, and stomatal conductance of CO2 of infested green buttonwood trees. Leaf gas exchange of live oak was not affected by larval infestation. In addition to testing cumulative effects of multiple infestations of larvae, the effects of incremental infestations on leaf gas exchange and fresh and dry weights also were tested for each plant species. Net CO2 assimilation, transpiration, stomatal conductance of CO2, and dry weights of green buttonwood were reduced as a result of larval root feeding, whereas there was no effect of incremental larval infestations on leaf gas exchange of live oak or pygmy date palm within the experimental time frame. There was no effect of incremental larval infestations on dry weights of live oak, but leaf, stem, and dry root weight of pygmy date palm were lower for infested plants than for noninfested plants. Overall, green buttonwood was more susceptible to larval root feeding damage than either live oak or pygmy date palm.     

Physiological and growth responses of Centaurea maculosa (Asteraceae) to root herbivory under varying levels of interspecific plant competition and soil nitrogen availability

Summary Centaurea maculosa seedlings were grown in pots to study the effects of root herbivory by Agapeta zoegana L. (Lep.: Cochylidae) and Cyphocleonus achates Fahr. (Col.: Curculionidae), grass competition and nitrogen shortage (each present or absent), using a full factorial design. The aims of the study were to analyse the impact of root herbivory on plant growth, resource allocation and physiological processes, and to test if these plant responses to herbivory were influenced by plant competition and nitrogen availability. The two root herbivores differed markedly in their impact on plant growth. While feeding by the moth A. zoegana in the root cortex had no effect on shoot and root mass, feeding by the weevil C. achates in the central vascular tissue greatly reduced shoot mass, but not root mass, leading to a reduced shoot/root ratio. The absence of significant effects of the two herbivores on root biomass, despite considerable consumption, indicates that compensatory root growth occurred. Competition with grass affected plant growth more than herbivory and nutrient status, resulting in reduced shoot and root growth, and number of leaves. Nitrogen shortage did not affect plant growth directly but greatly influenced the compensatory capacity of Centaurea maculosa to root herbivory. Under high nitrogen conditions, shoot biomass of plants infested by the weevil was reduced by 30% compared with uninfested plants. However, under poor nitrogen conditions a 63% reduction was observed compared with corresponding controls. Root herbivory was the most important stress factor affecting plant physiology. Besides a relative increase in biomass allocation to the roots, infested plants also showed a significant increase in nitrogen concentration in the roots and a concomitant reduction in leaf nitrogen concentration, reflecting a redirection of the nitrogen to the stronger sink. The level of fructans was greatly reduced in the roots after herbivore feeding. This is thought to be a consequence of their mobilisation to support compensatory root growth. A preliminary model linking the effects of these root herbivores to the physiological processes of C. maculosa is presented.     

基于MapObjects的稻水象甲疫情呈报地理信息系统

【背景】稻水象甲是我国最具危害性的外来入侵物种之一,自1996年传人福建省以来,对当地农民增产、增收及粮食安全生产构成了极大威胁。【方法】依据1996～2008年福建省稻水象甲发生面积数据,结合GIS技术和数据库管理技术,以VisualBasic6．0为开发语言,Access2003为Geodatabase空间数据库、MapObjects2．0为地图开发组件,开发了福建省稻水象甲疫情呈报系统。【结果】本系统实现了稻水象甲疫情实时呈报、基于GIS地理分布查询、专题地图制作等功能。专题地图制作和可扩展性是本系统的两大特点,用户不需要专业的GIS和计算机知识,就可以生成一套适合自己的植物疫情呈报系统,为农业病虫害防治工作提供疫情呈报与GIS查询服务。【结论与意义】本系统为稻水象甲的实时监测、防控工作提供了管理工具;界面友好、操作简单且可扩展性良好,便于基层普及应用。     

褐飞虱侵害后不同水稻品种根及叶片脱落酸含量的变化

为了解褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens （Stål）侵害后水稻耐虫性与植物体内源激素关系,应用酶联免疫吸附法（enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA）研究褐飞虱若虫侵害分蘖期超级培矮64S/E32和TN1,灌浆期协优963和TN1后根及叶片脱落酸（abscisic acid, ABA）含量变化.结果表明：褐飞虱侵害分蘖期超级培矮64S/E32和TN1后3 d,叶片ABA含量显著上升,ABA含量根冠比（根ABA/叶片ABA）显著下降;侵害后6 d,超级培矮64S/E32叶片ABA含量显著下降,根冠比显著上升;但TN1叶片ABA含量在褐飞虱侵害后3 d和6 d显著上升,根冠比显著下降.褐飞虱侵害灌浆期协优963与分蘖期超级培矮64S/E32变化一致,TN1在褐飞虱侵害后3 d叶片ABA含量显著上升,根冠比显著下降;侵害后6 d,叶片ABA含量、ABA含量根冠比均显著上升.由ABA含量变化百分比可见,分蘖期ABA含量变化幅度较灌浆期大;耐虫品种变化幅度较感虫品种大,持续期较感虫品种短;叶片变化幅度较根部大.褐飞虱侵害后,两种不同生育期两种抗性不同的水稻品种比较,耐虫品种叶片ABA含量先上升（3 d）后下降（6 d）,ABA含量根冠比先下降（3 d）后上升（6 d）;感虫品种叶片ABA含量持续上升（3 d和6 d）,分蘖期ABA含量根冠比持续下降（3 d和6 d）,灌浆期ABA含量根冠比先下降（3 d）后上升（6 d）;耐、感虫水稻品种根部变化规律不明显.这些差别表明不同水稻（耐虫和感虫）品种受褐飞虱侵害后体内ABA含量变化规律不同.本研究结果对深入阐明水稻耐虫品种的机制具有重要参考价值.     

Interactive effects of light environment and herbivory on growth and productivity of an invasive annual vine, Persicaria perfoliata

Plant populations often exist in spatially heterogeneous environments with varying light levels, which can affect plant growth directly through resource availability or indirectly by altering behavior or success of herbivores. The plant vigor hypothesis predicts that herbivores are more likely to attack vigorously growing plants than those that are suppressed, for example in more shaded conditions. Plant tolerance of herbivory can also vary under contrasting resource availability. Observations suggest that damage by Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), introduced into the United States in 2004 as a biological control agent for mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata [L.] H. Gross), is greater in the sun than in shade. We compared weevil densities and plant growth in paired plots in full sun or under shade cloth; a second experiment included insecticide-treated plots in sun and shade, to assess the ability of the plant to compensate for herbivore damage. Greater density of weevils and more node damage (indicating internal larval feeding) were found on P. perfoliata plants growing in sun than on those in shade. Nodes were 14% thicker in the sun, which may have provided better larval habitat. Biomass produced by plants without weevils in the sun was about twice that produced in any other treatment. Herbivory had a greater effect on plant growth in the high-light environment than in the shade, apparently because of movement into the sun and increased feeding there by the monophagous herbivore, R. latipes. Results support the plant vigor hypothesis and suggest that high weevil densities in the sunny habitats favored by P. perfoliata can suppress plant growth, negating the resource advantage to plants growing in the sun.     

Impact of insecticides on oilseed rape bud infestation with eggs and larvae of pollen beetle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassicogethes aeneus</Emphasis> (Fabricius))

One of the main insect pests in oilseed rape is the pollen beetle (Brassicogethes aeneus (Fabricius), syn. Meligethes aeneus). To maximize efficiency of control of this pest, insecticides are required that ideally, not just prevent yield losses by bud feeding of overwintered pollen beetles, but simultaneously minimize the reproduction of the pest, thereby reducing the size of the following generation infesting next year’s oilseed rape. The neonicotinoid active substance thiacloprid is known to reduce bud infestation with eggs and larvae. However, the mechanisms by which this occurs as well as the effects of other active substances are not known. In this study, the effects of the neonicotinoid insecticide Biscaya (a.i. thiacloprid) and the pyrethroids Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate) and Karate Zeon (lambda-cyhalothrin) applied at the bud stage of winter oilseed rape with recommended field rates on infestation of buds with eggs and larvae of pollen beetles were tested in field trials in Germany in 2013–2015. In additional greenhouse experiments, it was investigated whether effects on bud infestation were caused by lethal effects on pollen beetle or by insecticidal residues on plants causing sublethal effects. In the field trials, application of Biscaya and Mavrik significantly reduced the percentage of buds containing eggs and larvae in contrast to Karate Zeon. In 2014 and 2015, 14 days after application, bud infestation on the main raceme was reduced by 86 and 82%, respectively, in Biscaya-treated plots and by 51 and 71%, respectively, in Mavrik-treated plots compared to the untreated plots. In the greenhouse experiments, the lowest percentage of bud infestation with eggs and larvae was recorded on Biscaya-treated plants whereas on Mavrik-treated plants, there was no significant difference compared with the control. The results of the field trials show that Biscaya and Mavrik reduced oilseed rape bud infestation with eggs and larvae of pollen beetles primarily by lethal effects on overwintered pollen beetles or by repellency. However, Biscaya had additional effects on egg laying, which was supported by the greenhouse experiments.     

Intermediate herbivory intensity of an aboveground pest promotes soil labile resources and microbial biomass via modifying rice growth

Background and Aims

The importance of aboveground herbivores for modifying belowground ecosystems has prompted numerous studies; however, studies can be biased by context dependent conditions which lead to extremely inconsistent results. So far, the impacts of herbivory intensity by important rice pests on rice paddy soil ecosystems are lacking. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that intermediate herbivory intensity of the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål) could promote soil labile resources and microbial biomass, while high intensity would show a reverse pattern, by mediating rice plant growth. This study will also help the development of integrative pest management.

Methods

Four hopper infestation density treatments (0, 4, 8 and 12 nymphs per rice plant) and two infestation duration treatments (9 and 15 days after N. lugens infestation, DAI 9 and DAI 15) were established in a glasshouse experiment. Soil and plant were sampled destructively from four replicates and analysed for soil labile resources availability, soil microbial biomass and plant performance, respectively.

Results

The infestation density significantly affected both shoot and root mass of rice (P?<?0.05), soil dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON), and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and nitrogen (MBN), and the effects were further enhanced by prolonged infestation duration. Compared to the control (CK) without N. lugens, plant dry mass, DOC, DON, MBC and MBN increased under low (LD) and moderate hopper densities (MD) but decreased under high density (HD) on DAI 9. Moreover, the LD treatment exerted the most promotional effects on DAI 15. Rice root to shoot ratio generally increased in treatments subjected to herbivory. The labile resources and microbial biomass showed close relationships with both shoot and root mass across treatments, in particular with root mass on DAI 15. Such a trend indicated that the shift of photosynthate allocation to belowground contributed to changes of soil resource availability and microbial biomass.

Conclusions

Intermediate herbivory intensity showed positive effects on rice seedling performance and, further, promoted soil labile resource availability and microbial biomass. The importance of extrapolating temporal and spatial scale, i.e. from the short-term greenhouse experiment to an entire rice growing season in the field, was highlighted.     

Photosynthesis and translocation of assimilates in rice plants following phloem feeding by the planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

Experiments were conducted to measure the effect of feeding by the planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (St?l) on photosynthesis and the translocation of assimilates in rice plants, Oryza sativa L. We used mature japonica rice plants and applied the 13CO2 feeding method to evaluate those physiological effects. The photosynthetic rate was suppressed by N. lugens infestation, especially at the lower leaf position, with rates 30% lower than that of control plants at the booting stage. Leaf nitrogen concentration in infested plants was also lower than that in control plants. After flowering, the chlorophyll content and total plant dry weight were reduced by N. lugens. Stem and sheath dry weights were significantly reduced by N. lugens infestation, whereas panicle dry weight was not affected. Little effect was found on disruption in translocation of assimilates, even when 13CO2 was supplied to the infested leaves. Results suggested that removal of assimilates and reduction in photosynthesis by N. lugens have the greatest effect on growth and yield of rice plants as compared with the disruption in the translocation of assimilates. Plant death can occur by N. lugens infestation if the amount of energy supplied is less than that required for tissue maintenance.