SK3钾通道通过PI3K/Akt-ERK通路介导Cu2+-Aβ复合物所致小胶质细胞激活

摘要 目的：探讨Ca²⁺激活的小电导SK3钾通道在Cu²⁺-Aβ复合物（Cu-Aβ）所致小胶质细胞激活中的作用及下游信号通路。方法：应用Cu-Aβ激活BV2小胶质细胞,采用ELISA和Amplex Red试剂盒检测细胞培养上清中肿瘤坏死因子（TNF-α）和过氧化氢（H₂O₂）的含量,应用qPCR和Western blot检测钾通道mRNA和蛋白水平及相关信号通路蛋白的磷酸化。结果：（1）应用不同离子通道阻断剂以及不同亚型钾通道阻断剂预处理的实验结果表明,SK3通道可能介导了Cu-Aβ所致的小胶质细胞激活。（2）qPCR和Western blot检测结果表明,Cu-Aβ可上调小胶质细胞内SK3 mRNA和蛋白表达。（3）通过转染SK3-siRNA下调小胶质细胞内SK3表达水平,结果表明,下调SK3表达后显著抑制Cu-Aβ所致的小胶质细胞激活。（4）应用特异性信号分子阻断剂预处理的实验结果表明,PI3K/Akt信号和 ERK信号均参与了Cu-Aβ所致的小胶质细胞激活。（5）应用相关信号分子阻断剂预处理的实验结果进一步表明,在介导Cu-Aβ诱发的小胶质细胞激活过程中,SK3通道位于PI3K/Akt-ERK信号通路的上游。结论：SK3通道通过其下游的PI3K/Akt-ERK信号通路介导Cu-Aβ所致的小胶质细胞炎症反应。     

间充质干细胞来源外泌体对脑内小胶质细胞极化和炎症因子释放的影响及机制研究

摘要 目的：探究间充质干细胞外泌体对脑内小胶质细胞极化和炎症因子释放的影响及其机制。方法：收集体外培养的间充质干细胞上清，超高速冷冻离心获取外泌体。采用纳米颗粒系统和透射电子显微镜分别检测外泌体粒径大小、形态结构和功能完整性。通过免疫荧光、ELISA和细胞流式等方式检测LPS刺激下，外泌体对BV2细胞的表型极化和炎症因子释放的影响。采用Western Blot法检测间充质干细胞外泌体对BV2细胞JAK1/STAT3通路活化的影响。结果：（1）间充质干细胞分泌的外泌体粒径大小主要介于40-100 nm，透射电镜显示外泌体形态呈典型膜性"杯盘"状结构；（2）流式结果表明，相比于对照组，LPS组能显著激活M1型小胶质细胞表面标志物CD11b和M2型小胶质细胞表面标志物CD206的表达，而经外泌体处理，CD11b的表达显著被抑制，CD206显著升高。同时ELISA结果证实，相比于LPS组，外泌体组分泌的促炎症因子（IL-1β、IL-6）和NO水平显著降低（P<0.05），抗炎因子（IL-10）显著升高 (P<0.05)；（3）间充质干细胞外泌体显著提高了BV2细胞JAK1/STAT3通路的磷酸化水平。结论：间充质干细胞外泌体通过激活JAK1/STAT3通路有效促进脑内小胶质细胞M1型向M2型极化。     

研究报告: 组织蛋白酶B介导NLRP3小体在砷致小胶质细胞炎症激活中的作用

目的 探究组织蛋白酶B（CTSB）介导NLRP3小体在砷致小胶质细胞（BV-2）炎症激活中的作用。方法 取处于对数生长期的BV-2细胞，分别暴露于终浓度为0、2、4、8 μmol/L亚砷酸钠（NaAsO₂）溶液培养24 h，检测细胞活性，测定各组细胞内CTSB和细胞焦亡相关蛋白NLRP3、Caspase-1、IL-18、IL-1β的表达水平。流式细胞仪检测胞内溶酶体膜稳定性。基于实验结果，增设CTSB抑制剂组（5 μmol/L CA074-Me +8 μmol/L NaAsO₂、10 μmol/L CA074-Me+8 μmol/L NaAsO₂），检测两组细胞内炎症相关蛋白NLRP3、Caspase-1和IL-1β、IL-18的表达水平。结果 与对照组比较，各染砷组细胞抑制率增高，呈现剂量效应关系，溶酶体膜稳定性下降，差异有统计学意义（P<0.01），胞内CTSB、NLRP3、IL-1β、IL-18、Caspase-1表达增高，差异有统计学意义（P<0.01）；与对照组（8 μmol/L NaAsO₂）比较，抑制剂组BV-2细胞胞内CTSB、NLRP3、IL-1β、IL-18、Caspase-1水平均降低，差异有统计学差异（P<0.01）。结论 NaAsO₂通过诱导小胶质细胞内CTSB水平的上升，介导NLRP3炎症小体激活小胶质细胞，促其释放炎性因子，致神经系统损伤。     

天冬酰胺内肽酶和胶质细胞在创伤性脑损伤中的激活

摘要 目的：创伤性脑损伤（traumatic brain injury, TBI）缺乏安全有效的治疗手段,亟须寻找新的干预靶点。天冬酰胺内肽酶 (asparaginyl endopeptidase, AEP)在免疫和神经系统疾病中起重要作用,本研究观察了小鼠TBI模型中AEP的激活和变化,探讨AEP对脑损伤和修复的意义。方法：控制性皮层撞击法在小鼠右脑半球制作TBI损伤,在造模后的不同时间点,测定受损脑组织内的乳酸含量和AEP的活性变化,免疫荧光化学染色观察TBI之后3天的胶质细胞活化,以及AEP在其中的表达。结果：TBI造成乳酸在受损脑组织内逐渐堆积,导致小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的反应性活化和增生,AEP的上调和激活出现在TBI的继发性脑损伤阶段,AEP在小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞内均出现上调。结论：AEP有可能参与调控TBI引发的胶质细胞活化,在神经损伤和修复中发挥重要作用。     

脂肪细胞衰老通过衰老相关分泌表型诱导微血管内皮细胞早衰和功能紊乱

摘要 目的：探讨衰老脂肪细胞对微循环内皮细胞（ECs）功能状态的影响,以及异常早衰在糖尿病肾病（DKD）中的潜在作用。方法：3T3-L1细胞被诱导分化为年轻和衰老的脂肪细胞。HMEC-1细胞分别培养在年轻、衰老脂肪细胞制成的条件培养基和对照培养基中。通过免疫荧光检测γH2AX和SA-β-半乳糖苷酶活性鉴定细胞衰老状态。通过qPCR、Western blot检测衰老相关分泌表型（SASP）、胰岛素受体底物1（IRS1）、Jun原癌基因（JUN）、组蛋白H3第4位赖氨酸二甲基化、三甲基化（H3K4me2、H3K4me3）等指标的表达水平。利用GEO数据库对衰老肾脏和早期糖尿病肾病的差异表达基因（DGE）进行生物信息学分析。结果：衰老脂肪细胞的SASP表达显著升高,其条件培养基成功诱导HMEC-1细胞衰老。与年轻HMEC-1细胞相比,诱导衰老的HMEC-1细胞中斯钙素1（STC1）表达上调,前炎症因子、JUN和H3K4me3均表达下调。与对照组相比,IRS1在年轻HMEC-1细胞中显著下调,在诱导衰老的HMEC-1细胞中无显著变化。生物信息学结果显示差异基因的交集仅存在于衰老肾脏的上调基因和早期糖尿病肾病的下调基因之间。PPI网络分析、GO及KEGG富集分析表明IL6-SOCS3-IRS1是异常早衰机制参与早期DKD发生的核心信号通路。结论：脂肪细胞衰老导致微循环内皮细胞早衰并损害其正常功能状态,异常早衰机制参与了DKD的发生发展。     

星形胶质细胞糖原动员改善大脑缺血再灌注损伤的研究

摘要 目的：探讨星形胶质细胞糖原动员是否对大脑缺血再灌注损伤有神经保护作用。方法：研究构建了星形胶质细胞特异性糖原分解代谢关键酶糖原磷酸化酶（Glycogen phosphorylase, GP）过表达转基因小鼠（GFAP-GP）,并通过免疫荧光染色对GP的含量进行验证。在小鼠大脑中动脉梗死/再通模型中,利用GFAP-GP小鼠促进再灌注后累积糖原的分解（糖原动员）,通过三苯基氯化四氮唑（Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, TTC）染色分析再灌注后GFAP-GP小鼠的脑梗死面积,Corner test和Grid-walking test检测再灌注后GFAP-GP小鼠的神经行为学功能。结果：GFAP-GP小鼠中GP的含量发生了明显的增加,再灌注后GFAP-GP小鼠与野生型小鼠相比,脑糖原含量明显降低,梗死明显减少,肢体感觉与运动功能明显改善。结论：星形胶质细胞糖原动员可改善大脑缺血再灌注损伤。     

β分泌酶1降低β肌养蛋白聚糖的蛋白质水平

目的 β分泌酶1（BACE1）是阿尔茨海默病患者脑中淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）产生的关键酶。肌养蛋白聚糖 （dystroglycan,DG）帮助星形胶质细胞的终足锚定在脑血管上,形成一道支持血脑屏障的胶质界限。一项无靶标蛋白质组学研究指出BACE1可能会下调DG的表达水平。本文旨在研究BACE1能否调控DG的蛋白质水平及其可能的调控机制。方法 利用瞬时转染法在HEK-293T细胞系和原代培养的小鼠星形胶质细胞中表达目的蛋白。通过蛋白质免疫印迹分析目标蛋白质的相对水平。利用基因荧光定量和免疫共沉淀技术探索BACE1调控DG的潜在机制。结果 在HEK-293T和原代小鼠星形胶质细胞中引入BACE1会使DG β亚基（β-DG）的蛋白质水平显著降低。在HEK-293T细胞中,β-DG蛋白水平的下降依赖于BACE1的酶活性。结论 在HEK-293T细胞和小鼠星形胶质细胞中,BACE1使β-DG的蛋白质水平下降。     

脂多糖LPS诱导的神经炎症对小鼠认知功能的影响及相关机制分析

为研究脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)对小鼠认知功能的影响,本研究将18只C57BL/6小鼠随机分为两组,即正常对照组和LPS处理组,每组各9只小鼠。在腹腔注射LPS 24 h后行水迷宫实验检测小鼠行为学变化。此外,本研究采用Western blotting和免疫组化检测小鼠脑内小胶质细胞特异性标记物离子通道相关钙衔接蛋白(ionized calcium binding adapter,IBA1)的表达,TUNEL凋亡法检测小鼠脑内神经元凋亡情况。实验结果发现LPS处理后小鼠认知功能下降。Western blotting和免疫组化结果均提示LPS处理后小鼠脑中IBA1表达量增加,小胶质细胞激活;TUNEL提示LPS处理后小鼠脑内出现大量凋亡神经元,由此推断LPS可能通过激活小胶质细胞,扩大神经炎症反应,增加神经元凋亡导致小鼠认知功能下降。     

糖尿病诱导serpinE1分泌增多对心肌细胞NF-κB核易位及凋亡的影响

摘要 目的：探讨糖尿病诱导serpinE1分泌增多是否引起心肌细胞NF-κB核易位及凋亡。方法：8周龄C57BL/6J小鼠随机分为对照组和糖尿病组,糖尿病模型应用链脲佐菌素腹腔注射诱导。体外试验中,应用低糖（5.5 mmol/L）及高糖（25 mmol/L）浓度培养基分别处理大鼠心肌H9C2细胞。ELISA法分别检测小鼠血清及细胞培养上清中的serpinE1水平,Western Blot分别检测心脏组织及细胞中 caspase-3、cleaved caspase-3以及细胞浆、细胞核中NF-κB蛋白表达。此外,H9C2细胞分为三组：对照组、serpinE1重组蛋白处理组、JSH-23与serpinE1重组蛋白共同处理组,Western Blot检测上述相同指标。结果：糖尿病小鼠血清及高糖处理的细胞培养上清中serpinE1水平较对照组显著增加(P<0.05)。同对照组相比,细胞核/细胞浆NF-κB、cleaved caspase-3/ caspase-3在糖尿病小鼠心肌组织及H9C2细胞高糖处理组中显著上升(P<0.05)。此外,serpinE1重组蛋白处理后细胞核/细胞浆NF-κB以及cleaved caspase-3/ caspase-3同对照组相比,均显著增加(P<0.05),而JSH-23则减弱了serpinE1的这些效应。结论：糖尿病诱导serpinE1分泌增多促进心肌细胞NF-κB核易位及凋亡。     

小鼠不同细胞间组蛋白修饰变化对MafA基因转录表达的影响

目的通过比较不同细胞类型之间MafA基因转录起始区的组蛋白修饰差异,探讨组蛋白修饰对MafA基因转录表达的作用。方法采用染色质免疫共沉淀-实时定量PCR法检测小鼠胰岛素瘤β细胞（NIT-1）、NIH小鼠成纤维细胞（NIH3T3）及小鼠胚胎干细胞（mES）三者中的MafA和MLH1基因转录起始区组蛋白修饰（H3K4m3、H3K9m3和H3乙酰化）的状况。同时采用实时定量RT-PCR检测上述三种细胞各基因mRNA表达水平。分析基因的H3K4m3、H3K9m3和H3乙酰化修饰与基因表达之间的相互关系。结果 （1）以mES细胞为参照,NIT-1细胞MafA基因的转录起始区的H3K4m3修饰水平明显增高（P〈0.05）,H3K9m3修饰水平明显降低（P〈0.05）;NIH 3T3细胞MafA基因的转录起始区的H3K9m3修饰水平明显增高（P〈0.05）,H3K4m3修饰水平明显降低（P〈0.05）;（2）MafA基因的仅在NIT-1细胞表达,其表达与H3K4m3修饰存在直线相关（相关系数0.995）;与H3K9m3修饰存在直线负相关（相关系数-0.751）;（3）管家基因MLH1的表达与所检测组蛋白修饰无相关性。结论 H3K9m3与H3K4m3修饰能相互协调,共同调控MafA基因的表达,对胚胎干细胞向β细胞分化具有重要的意义。     

TRPV1 activation alleviates cognitive and synaptic plasticity impairments through inhibiting AMPAR endocytosis in APP23/PS45 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common causes of neurodegenerative diseases in the elderly. The accumulation of amyloid‐β (Aβ) peptides is one of the pathological hallmarks of AD and leads to the impairments of synaptic plasticity and cognitive function. The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a nonselective cation channel, is involved in synaptic plasticity and memory. However, the role of TRPV1 in AD pathogenesis remains largely elusive. Here, we reported that the expression of TRPV1 was decreased in the brain of APP23/PS45 double transgenic AD model mice. Genetic upregulation of TRPV1 by adeno‐associated virus (AAV) inhibited the APP processing and Aβ deposition in AD model mice. Meanwhile, upregulation of TRPV1 ameliorated the deficits of hippocampal CA1 long‐term potentiation (LTP) and spatial learning and memory through inhibiting GluA2‐containing α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) endocytosis. Furthermore, pharmacological activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin (1 mg/kg, i.p.), an agonist of TRPV1, dramatically reversed the impairments of hippocampal CA1 LTP and spatial learning and memory in AD model mice. Taken together, these results indicate that TRPV1 activation effectively ameliorates cognitive and synaptic functions through inhibiting AMPAR endocytosis in AD model mice and could be a novel molecule for AD treatment.     

Distinct inflammatory phenotypes of microglia and monocyte‐derived macrophages in Alzheimer's disease models: effects of aging and amyloid pathology

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by formation of amyloid‐β (Aβ) plaques, activated microglia, and neuronal cell death leading to progressive dementia. Recent data indicate that microglia and monocyte‐derived macrophages (MDM) are key players in the initiation and progression of AD, yet their respective roles remain to be clarified. As AD occurs mostly in the elderly and aging impairs myeloid functions, we addressed the inflammatory profile of microglia and MDM during aging in TgAPP/PS1 and TgAPP/PS1dE9, two transgenic AD mouse models, compared to WT littermates. We only found MDM infiltration in very aged mice. We determined that MDM highly expressed activation markers at basal state. In contrast, microglia exhibited an activated phenotype only with normal aging and Aβ pathology. Our study showed that CD14 and CD36, two receptors involved in phagocytosis, were upregulated during Aβ pathogenesis. Moreover, we observed, at the protein levels in AD models, higher production of pro‐inflammatory mediators: IL‐1β, p40, iNOS, CCL‐3, CCL‐4, and CXCL‐1. Taken together, our data indicate that microglia and MDM display distinct phenotypes in AD models and highlight the specific effects of normal aging vs Aβ peptides on inflammatory processes that occur during the disease progression. These precise phenotypes of different subpopulations of myeloid cells in normal and pathologic conditions may allow the design of pertinent therapeutic strategy for AD.     

Neural stem cells and adult brain fatty acid metabolism: Lessons from the 3xTg model of Alzheimer's disease

Neural stem cell (NSC) activity and adult neurogenesis are physiologically relevant regulators of adult brain structure, function and repair. Given these roles, the NSC impairments observed in a wide range of neurodegenerative and psychiatric conditions likely factor into the overall cognitive dysfunction in these conditions. We investigated NSC regulation in the context of Alzheimer's disease (AD) using the well‐characterised triple transgenic (3xTg) model of AD. In this review, we describe our recent findings that link 3xTg‐AD neurogenesis impairments to AD‐associated abnormalities in brain fatty acid metabolism. Notably, we identified an accumulation of triglycerides rich in oleic acid, a mono‐unsaturated fatty acid, within the forebrain NSC niche in AD. Inhibiting the local conversion of saturated to mono‐unsaturated fatty acids within the brain was sufficient to counteract the loss of NSC activity in 3xTg‐AD mice (Hamilton et al., 2015). We place these findings within the context of recent evidence that dynamic changes in lipid metabolism occur during the transition from NSC quiescence to activation. The picture that emerges is that the critical NSC quiescence‐to‐activation decision is sensitive to the local levels of specific fatty acids and can be impaired by a disease‐associated shift in brain fatty acid balance.     

Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis extract GJ-4 alleviated cognitive deficits of APP/PS1 transgenic mice

BackgroundAccumulating evidence demonstrates that traditional Chinese medicines that act on multiple targets could effectively treat various multi-etiological diseases, including cerebrovascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and so on. Previous studies have shown that crocin richments (GJ-4), Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis extract, provide neuroprotective effects on cognitive impairments in AD mouse models. However, the mechanism how GJ-4 improves cognition remains still unclear.PurposeThe aim of this study was to uncover the protective effects and underlying mechanism of GJ-4 on PrP-hAβPPswe/PS1^ΔE9 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice.MethodsAPP/PS1 mice were given GJ-4 (10, 20, and 50 mg/kg), donepezil (5 mg/kg) and memantine (5 mg/kg) orally at eight months of age for 12 consecutive weeks. Morris water maze and novel object recognition were conducted to assess the cognitive ability of mice. The release of inflammatory cytokines was determined by RT-PCR assay, and the pathological features of neurons and microglia were assayed by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence assay. The expression of Aβ-related proteins and signaling pathways were determined by Western blot.ResultsThe behavioral results revealed that GJ-4 ameliorated the cognitive deficits of APP/PS1 mice measured by Morris water maze and novel object recognition tests. Mechanism studies indicated that GJ-4 significantly decreased β-amyloid (Aβ) level through reducing Aβ production and promoting Aβ degradation. It has been reported that Aβ plaques trigger the hyper-phosphorylation of tau protein in APP/PS1 mice. Consistent with previous studies, hyper-phosphorylation of tau was also occurred in APP/PS1 mice in the present study, and GJ-4 inhibited Tau phosphorylation at different sites. Overwhelming evidence indicates that neuroinflammation stimulated by Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau is involved in the pathological progression of AD. We found that GJ-4 suppressed neuroinflammatory responses in the brain through regulating phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/AKT (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway activation, and subsequent expression of inflammatory proteins and release of inflammatory cytokines.ConclusionAltogether, GJ-4 ameliorated cognition of APP/PS1 transgenic mice through multiple targets, including Aβ, tau and neuroinflammation. This study provides a solid research basis for further development of GJ-4 as a potential candidate for the treatment of AD.     

TRPV1 channel mediates NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent neuroinflammation in microglia

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease in the central nervous system (CNS). The NLRP3 inflammasome is considered an important regulator of immunity and inflammation, both of which play a critical role in MS. However, the underlying mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation is not fully understood. Here we identified that the TRPV1 (transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1) channel in microglia, as a Ca²⁺ influx-regulating channel, played an important role in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Deletion or pharmacological blockade of TRPV1 inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation in microglia in vitro. Further research revealed that TRPV1 channel regulated ATP-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation through mediating Ca²⁺ influx and phosphorylation of phosphatase PP2A in microglia. In addition, TRPV1 deletion could alleviate mice experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and reduce neuroinflammation by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. These data suggested that the TRPV1 channel in microglia can regulate NLRP3 inflammasome activation and consequently mediate neuroinflammation. Meanwhile, our study indicated that TRPV1–Ca²⁺–PP2A pathway may be a novel regulator of NLRP3 inflammasome activation, pointing to TRPV1 as a potential target for CNS inflammatory diseases.Subject terms: Neuroimmunology, Neuroimmunology     

Jmjd3 is essential for the epigenetic modulation of microglia phenotypes in the immune pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease

Classical activation (M1 phenotype) and alternative activation (M2 phenotype) are the two polars of microglial activation states that can produce either detrimental or beneficial effects in the central nervous system (CNS). Harnessing the beneficial properties of microglia cells by modulating their polarization states provides great potential for the treatment of Parkinson''s disease (PD). However, the epigenetic mechanism that regulates microglia polarization remains elusive. Here, we reported that histone H3K27me3 demethylase Jumonji domain containing 3 (Jmjd3) was essential for M2 microglia polarization. Suppression of Jmjd3 in N9 microglia inhibited M2 polarization and simultaneously exaggerated M1 microglial inflammatory responses, which led to extensive neuron death in vitro. We also observed that the suppression of Jmjd3 in the substantia nigra (SN) in vivo dramatically caused microglial overactivation and exacerbated dopamine (DA) neuron death in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-intoxicated mouse model of PD. Moreover, we showed that the Jmjd3 level was lower in the midbrain of aged mice, which was accompanied by an elevated level of H3K27me3 and an increased ratio of M1 to M2 markers, suggesting that aging is an important factor in switching the microglia phenotypes. Overall, our studies indicate that Jmjd3 is able to enhance the polarization of M2 microglia by modifying histone H3K27me3, and therefore it has a pivotal role in the switch of microglia phenotypes that may contribute to the immune pathogenesis of PD.     

p38α‐MAPK‐deficient myeloid cells ameliorate symptoms and pathology of APP‐transgenic Alzheimer's disease mice

Alzheimer''s disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia in the elderly, is pathologically characterized by extracellular deposition of amyloid‐β peptides (Aβ) and microglia‐dominated inflammatory activation in the brain. p38α‐MAPK is activated in both neurons and microglia. How p38α‐MAPK in microglia contributes to AD pathogenesis remains unclear. In this study, we conditionally knocked out p38α‐MAPK in all myeloid cells or specifically in microglia of APP‐transgenic mice, and examined animals for AD‐associated pathologies (i.e., cognitive deficits, Aβ pathology, and neuroinflammation) and individual microglia for their inflammatory activation and Aβ internalization at different disease stages (e.g., at 4 and 9 months of age). Our experiments showed that p38α‐MAPK‐deficient myeloid cells were more effective than p38α‐MAPK‐deficient microglia in reducing cerebral Aβ and neuronal impairment in APP‐transgenic mice. Deficiency of p38α‐MAPK in myeloid cells inhibited inflammatory activation of individual microglia at 4 months but enhanced it at 9 months. Inflammatory activation promoted microglial internalization of Aβ. Interestingly, p38α‐MAPK‐deficient myeloid cells reduced IL‐17a‐expressing CD4‐positive lymphocytes in 9 but not 4‐month‐old APP‐transgenic mice. By cross‐breeding APP‐transgenic mice with Il‐17a‐knockout mice, we observed that IL‐17a deficiency potentially activated microglia and reduced Aβ deposition in the brain as shown in 9‐month‐old myeloid p38α‐MAPK‐deficient AD mice. Thus, p38α‐MAPK deficiency in all myeloid cells, but not only in microglia, prevents AD progression. IL‐17a‐expressing lymphocytes may partially mediate the pathogenic role of p38α‐MAPK in peripheral myeloid cells. Our study supports p38α‐MAPK as a therapeutic target for AD patients.     

Cyclooxygenase‐1 inhibition reduces amyloid pathology and improves memory deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Several epidemiological and preclinical studies suggest that non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX), reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and can lower β‐amyloid (Aβ) production and inhibit neuroinflammation. However, follow‐up clinical trials, mostly using selective cyclooxygenase (COX)‐2 inhibitors, failed to show any beneficial effect in AD patients with mild to severe cognitive deficits. Recent data indicated that COX‐1, classically viewed as the homeostatic isoform, is localized in microglia and is actively involved in brain injury induced by pro‐inflammatory stimuli including Aβ, lipopolysaccharide, and interleukins. We hypothesized that neuroinflammation is critical for disease progression and selective COX‐1 inhibition, rather than COX‐2 inhibition, can reduce neuroinflammation and AD pathology. Here, we show that treatment of 20‐month‐old triple transgenic AD (3 × Tg‐AD) mice with the COX‐1 selective inhibitor SC‐560 improved spatial learning and memory, and reduced amyloid deposits and tau hyperphosphorylation. SC‐560 also reduced glial activation and brain expression of inflammatory markers in 3 × Tg‐AD mice, and switched the activated microglia phenotype promoting their phagocytic ability. The present findings are the first to demonstrate that selective COX‐1 inhibition reduces neuroinflammation, neuropathology, and improves cognitive function in 3 × Tg‐AD mice. Thus, selective COX‐1 inhibition should be further investigated as a potential therapeutic approach for AD.