Model for a self-repairing system of non-articulated coralline algae.

We propose a perspective for living systems, emphasizing that living systems are organized through the recognition of themselves and their surroundings. Oscillator functions in Brownian Algebra are introduced, supposing that the oscillation can be regarded as metabolism of the living state. We illustrate the idea of the self-repairing model in non-articulated coralline algae. Since various cells of this plant are assumed to be identified with the periodic sequence of oscillations, the individual periodic sequence characterizing a cell is supposed to be determined by a local-interaction rule which can be regarded as the process of self-organization through the recognition of local shape. Owing to accidental injury the rule characterizing a cell's own state can be transformed, and it entails another periodic sequence. We express the oscillator as state flow diagrams, and analyze the relationship between the transformation of the period and the injury which is represented by the removal of transient in flow diagrams.     

Bio-soliton model that predicts non-thermal electromagnetic frequency bands,that either stabilize or destabilize living cells

Solitons, as self-reinforcing solitary waves, interact with complex biological phenomena such as cellular self-organization. A soliton model is able to describe a spectrum of electromagnetism modalities that can be applied to understand the physical principles of biological effects in living cells, as caused by endogenous and exogenous electromagnetic fields and is compatible with quantum coherence. A bio-soliton model is proposed, that enables to predict which eigen-frequencies of non-thermal electromagnetic waves are life-sustaining and which are, in contrast, detrimental for living cells. The particular effects are exerted by a range of electromagnetic wave eigen-frequencies of one-tenth of a Hertz till Peta Hertz that show a pattern of 12 bands, and can be positioned on an acoustic reference frequency scale. The model was substantiated by a meta-analysis of 240 published articles of biological electromagnetic experiments, in which a spectrum of non-thermal electromagnetic waves were exposed to living cells and intact organisms. These data support the concept of coherent quantized electromagnetic states in living organisms and the theories of Fröhlich, Davydov and Pang. It is envisioned that a rational control of shape by soliton-waves and related to a morphogenetic field and parametric resonance provides positional information and cues to regulate organism-wide systems properties like anatomy, control of reproduction and repair.     

SOME PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASMIC GELS : I. TENSION IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF SPIROGYRA

The chloroplast of Spirogyra is a long, spirally coiled ribbon which may contract to form a short, nearly straight rod. This happens under natural conditions and it can also be produced by a variety of inorganic salts and by some organic substances. It also occurs when the chloroplast is freed by centrifugal force from the clear peripheral protoplasm which is in contact with the cellulose wall. It would therefore seem that the chloroplast may be passively stretched by the action of the clear protoplasm and hence it contracts as soon as it is set free. This contraction happens in dead as well as in living cells. It would be of much interest to know how the protoplasm brings about the coiling of the chloroplast and how the chloroplast is set free by various reagents. Presumably they must penetrate the living protoplasm to produce the effects described. In one species partial contraction without detachment from the peripheral protoplasm can be brought about by lead acetate. This is reversible. Lead nitrate does not produce this result. The attack upon the problem is greatly facilitated by the study of dead cells. Thereby we reduce the number of variables but the chloroplast continues to react to certain chemical and physical agents in much the same manner as in the living cell and the solution surrounding it can be controlled as is not possible in the living cell. We must await further investigation to learn what plant and animal cells contain gels under tension and what functions they perform.     

A “Living” Machine

Biomimetics (or bionics) is the engineering discipline that constructs artificial systems using biological principles. The ideal final result in biomimetics is to create a living machine. But what are the desirable and non-desirable properties of biomimetic product7 Where can natural prototypes be found7 How can technical solutions be transferred from nature to technology? Can we use living nature like LEC, O bricks for oonstmction our machines? How can biology help us? What is a living machine? In biomimetic practice only some “part“ (organ, part of organ, tissue) of the observed whole organism is utilized. A possible template for future super-organism extension for biornimetic methods might be drawn from experiments in holistic ecological agriculture (ecological design, permacuhure, ecological engineering, etc. ). The necessary translation of these roles to practical action can be achieved with the Russian Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ), specifically adjusted to biology. Thus, permaculture, reinforced by a TRIZ conceptual framework, might provide the basis for Super-Organismic Bionics, which is hypothesized as necessary for effective ecological engineering. This hypothesis is supported by a case study-the design of a sustainable artificial nature reserve for wild pollinators as a living machine.     

A technique for the determination of the available oxygen in living carp (Cyprinus carpio) muscle

A polarographic method for the measurement of the available oxygen in the muscle of living carp by the use of a platinum microelectrode is proposed. The oxygen and the reference electrodes were assembled in a single insertion piece which was implanted in the muscle of a living carp maintained in a special experimental chamber. Curves for normal oxygen levels corresponding to air-saturated water, as well as to a carbogene-saturated water, were obtained. The method can be considered adequate for the measurement of tissue oxygen in living fishes.     

激光诱导生物体变异中的基本规律

本文从生物体的特点出发，将激光诱导生物体的变异归结为四条基本规律。激光遗传育种的研究途径是从基因型到表型（ｐｈｅｎｏｔｙｐｅ），把诱导基本突变做为筛选目标性状的关键环节。只有ＮＤＡ分子发生改变才可能出现变异的这一规律，被视为必须遵从的首要的基本规律。生命组织是光学活性的，激光作用于生物体，把生物组织视为光学系统来研究入射光的吸收以及能量的沉积和微观分布，这里频率响应是又一条基本的规律。当联系生物组     

LEBENDNACHWEIS VON EINZELELEMENTEN DES ENDOPLASMATISCHEN RETIKULUMS

By means of a special selective preparation technique, it is possible to investigate in thin sections, by electron microscopy, areas of a cell that have been observed in the living state, by phase-contrast microscopy, up to the time of fixation. Structures recorded in the living state can thus be compared to structures seen in electron micrographs. In cells of the fungus Polystictus versicolor, aggregates of membrane systems as well as single cisternae with a diameter of approximately 200 to 300 A can be detected with phase optics. It can be shown, by calculation, that these structures, which are far below the limit of resolution of the light optical system, give enough contrast to be discernible by phase optics. Thus a basis is provided for observing the dynamics of membrane systems which perhaps may contribute to the analysis of the functional significance of these cell components.     

Enzyme cytochemical techniques for metabolic mapping in living cells, with special reference to proteolysis.

Specific enzymes play key roles in many pathophysiological processes and therefore are targets for therapeutic strategies. The activity of most enzymes is largely determined by many factors at the post-translational level. Therefore, it is essential to study the activity of target enzymes in living cells and tissues in a quantitative manner in relation to pathophysiological processes to understand its relevance and the potential impact of its targeting by drugs. Proteases, in particular, are crucial in every aspect of life and death of an organism and are therefore important targets. Enzyme activity in living cells can be studied with various tools. These can be endogenous fluorescent metabolites or synthetic chromogenic or fluorogenic substrates. The use of endogenous metabolites is rather limited and nonspecific because they are involved in many biological processes, but novel chromogenic and fluorogenic substrates have been developed to monitor activity of enzymes, and particularly proteases, in living cells and tissues. This review discusses these substrates and the methods in which they are applied, as well as their advantages and disadvantages for metabolic mapping in living cells.     

植物分类学在化石珊瑚藻(珊瑚藻目,红藻门)中的应用

最近有人认为将化石藻类的分类归入现生藻类分类单元有利于珊瑚藻作为古环境的标志,便于理解该类群的演化。然而,这样分类可能很难,因为并不是所有现生藻类分类特征都能在化石种中保存下来。Sporolithacea科的钙化部分(独立或者聚集的孢子囊群)的出现,可以把它们与这个类群的另一个现生科Corallinaceae区别开,这个科在生殖窠中产生孢子囊。节片的有无,丝间细胞的联系类型,生殖窠中孢子囊释放的数目都是用来划分Coral1inaceae科的亚科的标准,在化石样品中也可以用合适的条件进行观察。在大多数情况下,对现生珊瑚藻类属的划分特征可以在化石藻类中鉴别出来,但在几种现生珊瑚藻没有钙化的生殖结构或发育特征。因此,它们生殖结构无法与相应的化石藻类进行对比,也不能进行化石藻类的分类。近年来的趋势认为生殖结构和发育特征是对现生珊瑚藻进行分类的优先鉴定标准,然而,某些特征的稳定性在属的划分上仍然存在争论。在许多情况下,现生藻类的分类标准特征都不能在化石中保存,对古生物化石的分类标准的最佳选择是在化石藻类中选择辅助的,并且可以识别的其它鉴定特征,或者应用非正式的比现生藻类代表定义更宽的属名。     

Mechanical models for living cells--a review

As physical entities, living cells possess structural and physical properties that enable them to withstand the physiological environment as well as mechanical stimuli occurring within and outside the body. Any deviation from these properties will not only undermine the physical integrity of the cells, but also their biological functions. As such, a quantitative study in single cell mechanics needs to be conducted. In this review, we will examine some mechanical models that have been developed to characterize mechanical responses of living cells when subjected to both transient and dynamic loads. The mechanical models include the cortical shell-liquid core (or liquid drop) models which are widely applied to suspended cells; the solid model which is generally used for adherent cells; the power-law structural damping model which is more suited for studying the dynamic behavior of adherent cells; and finally, the biphasic model which has been widely used to study musculoskeletal cell mechanics. Based upon these models, future attempts can be made to develop even more detailed and accurate mechanical models of living cells once these three factors are adequately addressed: structural heterogeneity, appropriate constitutive relations for each of the distinct subcellular regions and components, and active forces acting within the cell. More realistic mechanical models of living cells can further contribute towards the study of mechanotransduction in cells.     

A neutral theory of biogenesis

The selective Darwinian theory of chemical evolution is critically reviewed and the tentative conclusion is reached that neither the theoretical analyses nor the experiments with phages can really prove it. An alternative proposal is put forth which considers the possibility that the biogenetic process has been driven by stochastic forces, e.g. it took place in the absence of Darwinian selection which, in turn, started only when the first protocells came into existence. The dynamics of the early self-organization of living structures should be understood in terms of self-assembly. The complexification of living matter is thus not represented as a gradual phenomenon but as a series of abrupt and relatively fast transitions consisting in the aggregation of pre-systems which had evolved by their own. The shift towards new and variegated states proposed by the bifurcation theory are not considered particularly relevant for reasons reported in the text, nor is it believed that dissipation can entirely account for the order observed in living cells.     

The evolution of intraspecific variation in social organization

Many species show intraspecific variation in their social organization (IVSO), which means the composition of their social groups can change between solitary living, pair living, or living in groups. Understanding IVSO is important because it demonstrates species resilience to environmental change and can help us to study ultimate and proximate reasons for group living by comparing solitary and group‐living individuals in a single species. It has long been realized that the environment plays a key role in explaining the occurrence of IVSO. IVSO is expected to have evolved in variable environments and can thus be a key adaptation to environmental change. It has previously been suggested that four different mechanisms relying on the environment exist that can lead to IVSO: environmental disrupters, genetic differentiation, developmental plasticity, and social flexibility. All four mechanisms depend on the environment such that focusing only on environmental factors alone cannot explain IVSO. Importantly, only three represent evolved mechanisms, while environmental disrupters leading to the death of important group members induce nonadaptive IVSO. Environmental disrupters can be expected to cause IVSO even in species where IVSO is also an adaptive response. Here, we focus on the questions of why IVSO occurs and why it evolved. To understand IVSO at the species level, it is important to conduct continuous long‐term studies to differentiate between nonadaptive and adaptive IVSO. We predict that IVSO evolves in environments that vary in important ecological variables, such as rainfall, food availability, and population density. IVSO might also depend on life history factors, especially longevity. IVSO is predicted to be more common in species with a short life span and that breed only for one breeding season, being selected to respond optimally to the prevailing environmental situation. Finally, we emphasize the importance of accounting for IVSO when studying social evolution, especially in comparative studies, as not every species can be assigned to one single form of social organization. For such comparative studies, it is important to use data based on the primary literature.     

Value, obligation and the asymmetry question

Is there a prima facie obligation to produce additional individuals whose lives would be worth living? In his paper ‘Is it Good to Make Happy People?’, Stuart Rachels argues not only that there is, but, also, that precisely as much weight should be assigned to the quality of life that would be enjoyed by such potential persons, if they were to be actualized, as to the quality of life enjoyed by actually existing persons. In response, I shall argue, first, that Rachels’ view is exposed to very serious objections, and secondly, that his arguments in support of his position involve a crucial assumption, which cannot be sustained, concerning the relation between, on the one hand, propositions about good-making and bad-making properties, and, on the other, propositions about right-making and wrong-making ones. I shall then argue that there is a very plausible position concerning the conditions under which an action can be morally wrong which entails the following asymmetry: there is a prima facie obligation not to bring into existence individuals whose lives are not worth living, but there is no corresponding obligation to create additional individuals whose lives would be worth living.     

Do bacteria differentiate between degrees of nanoscale surface roughness?

Whereas the employment of nanotechnology in electronics and optics engineering is relatively well established, the use of nanostructured materials in medicine and biology is undoubtedly novel. Certain nanoscale surface phenomena are being exploited to promote or prevent the attachment of living cells. However, as yet, it has not been possible to develop methods that completely prevent cells from attaching to solid surfaces, since the mechanisms by which living cells interact with the nanoscale surface characteristics of these substrates are still poorly understood. Recently, novel and advanced surface characterisation techniques have been developed that allow the precise molecular and atomic scale characterisation of both living cells and the solid surfaces to which they attach. Given this additional capability, it may now be possible to define boundaries, or minimum dimensions, at which a surface feature can exert influence over an attaching living organism.This review explores the current research on the interaction of living cells with both native and nanostructured surfaces, and the role that these surface properties play in the different stages of cell attachment.     

An abstract cell model that describes the self-organization of cell function in living systems

The principal aim of systems biology is to search for general principles that govern living systems. We develop an abstract dynamic model of a cell, rooted in Mesarovi? and Takahara's general systems theory. In this conceptual framework the function of the cell is delineated by the dynamic processes it can realize. We abstract basic cellular processes, i.e., metabolism, signalling, gene expression, into a mapping and consider cell functions, i.e., cell differentiation, proliferation, etc. as processes that determine the basic cellular processes that realize a particular cell function. We then postulate the existence of a 'coordination principle' that determines cell function. These ideas are condensed into a theorem: If basic cellular processes for the control and regulation of cell functions are present, then the coordination of cell functions is realized autonomously from within the system. Inspired by Robert Rosen's notion of closure to efficient causation, introduced as a necessary condition for a natural system to be an organism, we show that for a mathematical model of a self-organizing cell the associated category must be cartesian closed. Although the semantics of our cell model differ from Rosen's (M,R)-systems, the proof of our theorem supports (in parts) Rosen's argument that living cells have non-simulable properties. Whereas models that form cartesian closed categories can capture self-organization (which is a, if not the, fundamental property of living systems), conventional computer simulations of these models (such as virtual cells) cannot. Simulations can mimic living systems, but they are not like living systems.     

Autogenesis: the evolution of replicative systems

Questions concerning the nature and origin of living systems and the hierarchy of their evolutionary processes are considered, and several problems which arise in connection with formerly developed theories--the autopoiesis of Maturana & Varela, the POL theory of Haukioja and the earlier developed evolutionary theory of Csányi--are discussed. The organization of living systems, the use of informational terms and the question how reproduction can enter into their characterization, problems of autonomy and identity are included in the list. It is suggested that replication--a copying process achieved by a special network of interrelatedness of components and component-producing processes that produces the same network as that which produced them--characterizes the living organization. The information "used" in this copying process, whether it is stored by special means or distributed in the whole system, is called replicative information. A theoretical model is introduced for the spontaneous emergence of replicative organization, called autogenesis. Autogenesis commences in a system by an organized "small" subsystem, referred to as AutoGenetic System Precursor (AGSP), which conveys replicative information to the system. During autogenesis, replicative information increases in system and compartment(s) form. A compartment is the co-replicating totality of components. The end state of autogenesis is an invariantly self-replicating organization which is unable to undergo further intrinsic organizational changes. It is suggested that replicative unities--such as living organisms--evolve via autogenesis. Levels of evolution emerge as a consequence of the relative autonomy of the autogenetic unities. On the next level they can be considered as components endowed with functions and a new autogenetic process can commence. Thus evolution proceeds towards its end state through the parallel autogenesis of the various levels. In terms of applications, ontogenesis is dealt with in detail as an autogenetic process as is the autogenesis of the biosphere and the global system.     

Evolution in absence of mutation.

Each part of a living organism contains a concealed totality which can eventually express itself partially or totally. The extent of the expression is spatially and temporally defined by the morphogenetic field and the environment. Neither the field nor the genome are evolving units. Evolution is produced by the boundary conditions and results in progressive losses, to which the organisms responds. Genetic losses can stabilize the new balance. A living system can be fruitfully compared to a semiotic system.