Plants,Research, Conservation,and Education in the Bahama Archipelago. The Emerging Picture

This is an introductory paper for a Special Issue of Botanical Review devoted to plant biodiversity in the Bahamian archipelago. The papers published in this issue represent some of the contributions presented at a symposium that took place in Nassau in October 30 and 31, 2012 to celebrate the 30 year anniversary of the publication of the “Flora of the Bahama Archipelago” by Donovan and Helen Correll. The papers provide insights pertinent to plant conservation challenges, current floristic studies, plant endemicity patterns, plant exploration history, molecular systematic perspectives, and the importance of botanic garden collections for research, horticulture, and education.     

The Flora of the Bahamas,Donovan Correll,and the Miami University Connection

The Flora of the Bahama Archipelago was published in 1982 by Donovan and Helen Correll and included illustrations by Priscilla Fawcett as well as others. This treatment included 1,350 species incorporated in 660 genera and 144 families. The Flora replaced the dated 1920 The Bahama Flora published by Britton and Milspaugh. A flora is an ever changing entity and although it is only 30 years since the publication the Corrells’ work much has changed. One unfortunate omission from the Corrells’ flora was an adequate treatment of the work of William T. Gillis (1933–1979) who produced many important papers that were already in the literature at the time (Kass & Eshbaugh, 1993). Subsequent to the publication of the Flora of the Bahama Archipelago individuals affiliated with Miami University published a plethora of scholarly works on the flora of the Bahamas. This contribution attempts to set forth a record of the relationship and impact of Miami University and its affiliated scholars, both students and instructors, who with their work have transformed and updated our knowledge of the flora of the Bahamas. This is a continual process that will be ongoing into the foreseeable future.     

The New York Botanical Garden and the making of The Bahama Flora, 1920

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, The New York Botanical Garden, under the leadership of its Director-in-Chief, Nathaniel Lord Britton, launched an intensive program of exploration and publication on the plants of the Western Hemisphere, particularly in the northern Caribbean region. One major geographic focus during this period was the Bahama archipelago, resulting in the 1920 publication The Bahama Flora. Dr. Britton personally led four expeditions to the Bahamas between 1904 and 1907, but most of his effort on this project was devoted to coordinating and seeking funding for some two dozen expeditions from 1904 to 1911 undertaken by collaborators, most notably Charles Frederick Millspaugh of the Field Museum, co-author with N.L. Britton of The Bahama Flora. In total, the Flora reported 1,982 species. The present paper recounts the itineraries of the expeditions and provides examples of the principal botanical discoveries realized in the making of The Bahama Flora.     

Endemic Seed Plants in the Bahamian Archipelago

The Bahamian archipelago consists of approximately 2,400 islands occurring in the Atlantic Ocean off the coasts of Florida, Cuba, and Hispaniola. In 1982 Donovan Correll and Helen Correll published the most current synopsis of the floristic diversity of this island chain. Their publication cited a total of 1,371 vascular plant species of which 114 seed plants were listed as endemic to the archipelago (~8 % of the native flora). In the last 30 years, additional herbarium collections and taxonomic studies have shown that a number of species previously indicated to be endemic to these islands also occur in other regions or have been taxonomically merged into other species. The current number of species considered endemic to the Bahamian archipelago is 89 (~6 % of the total flora). There are 50 endemic species that have a known distribution on one (31 species) or two island groupings (19 species). Biogeographical analyses of endemic plant distributions shows three distinct clusters of species: southern, central, and the northern islands, with a fourth cluster that includes islands with a small area and one medium size island that seems that has been underexplored (i.e., Little Inagua). We anticipate that understanding the conservation status of endemic species and their distributions will help to develop legislation to preserve this Bahamian natural heritage.     

The Bahamian Flora: Plant Exploration,Living Collections,and DNA – A Journey Started in 1963

Dr. John Popenoe was Director of Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden (FTBG) between 1963 and 1989. Dr. Popenoe was a strong supporter of the Bahamian flora, and in 1963 he obtained extramural funds to develop a living collection focusing on Bahamian plants that was established in FTBG. During his tenure FTBG supported the publication of the latest comprehensive flora of this archipelago. A project initiated by the first FTBG herbarium curator, William Gillis, but published by Donovan and Helen Correll (with illustrations of Priscilla Fawcett) in 1982. This living collection of Bahamian plants has supplied plant material for molecular phylogenetic studies worldwide. There are DNA phylogenies for only 10 of the 89 Bahamian endemics; most of the material of these phylogenies came from plants from these collections (three species) and/or from fragments of herbarium specimens collected by Donovan Correll (six species). Only two of the species included in these phylogenies are from collections unrelated to FTBG. Excluding species restricted to the Bahamas, material from 14 Caribbean Island endemics that are part of these collections has been used in phylogenetic studies. The available molecular phylogenies show that the Bahamian endemics are closely related to species from the West Indies or continental areas of the Caribbean Basin. There is also a paucity of population genetic studies based on DNA markers focusing on Bahamian plants. Only two of the four available population genetic studies are for a Bahamian endemic taxon.     

The Nuts and Bolts of Doing the Flora of the Bahama Archipelago: How Don Correll Worked

The Flora of the Bahama Archipelago was published in a little over 8 years after it was initiated. In this paper, we document how Correll managed this feat from the initial concept to herbarium and fieldwork to illustrations and collaborations. Both archival data and personal recollections are incorporated as a demonstration of how such a project was conceived, conducted, and completed.     

Taxonomy of the genusGlycine,domestication and uses of soybeans

The genusGlycine has had a stormy taxonomic history. Recent studies of herbarium specimens and cytological and morphological analyses of living collections, coupled with chemotaxonomic investigations, have made it necessary to revise the genus. In the first part of this paper the current taxonomic status of the genusGlycine is reviewed. The soybean was domesticated in China. It is unfortunate that the literature concerned with the antiquity and historical development of the soybean is obscured by legends and myths. In the second section of the paper, the archeological, historical, agricultural and botanical literature is summarized in order to present all the known evidence as to when, where and by whom the soybean was domesticated. The soybean is the world’s premier source of dietary vegetable oil and is nutritionally an excellent and inexpensive source of protein for use either as human food or animal feed. In addition, the soybean has numerous industrial uses. In the last section of this paper the traditional uses of fermented and nonfermented soybeans in the East as well as the high-technology-developed uses of soybeans in the West are summarized.     

The Evolving Role of Botanical Gardens and Natural Areas:A Floristic Case Study from Royal Botanical Gardens,Canada

As leaders calling for the conservation of the world’s plants,botanical gardens protect plants within living collections.Many also study,manage and restore plants in natural habitats.Royal Botanical Gardens(Ontario,Canada) has integrated both horticultural and natural heritage in its mission for decades.Envisioned by municipal leaders in the 1920s as a combination of nature sanctuaries and civic gardens,RBG now includes forests,wetlands and other habitats,gardens and built spaces.Today RBG is Canada’s largest botanical garden on the basis of area.In the 1950s RBG began to inventory plant diversity.The checklist of spontaneous vascular plants now exceeds 1 170 species,of which 752 are native.This is 37% of Ontario’s native vascular plants and 19% of the native vascular flora of Canada.The RBG nature sanctuaries are among the richest locations in Canada for species-level diversity.We examine the history of floristic exploration within RBG and compare plant species-area relationships among protected natural areas in Ontario.This comparison supports the contention that the nature sanctuaries,and in particular Cootes Paradise,could be considered an important area for plants in Canada,and relative to the nation’s flora,a biodiversity hotspot.The fact that a candidate vascular plant hotspot for Canada lies within a major botanical garden presents opportunities for raising public awareness of the importance of plant diversity,as well as focusing attention on the scientific and conservation biology needs of communities and individual species in this area.     

The vascular plants of Joseph Dalton Hooker's An enumeration of the plants of the Galapagos Archipelago; with descriptions of those which are new

The first floristic work on the Galápagos Islands was published by J. D. Hooker in 1847. It was based mainly on the Beagle collections of Charles Darwin, but those of James McRae, John Scouler. Hugh Cuming, David Douglas, Thomas Edmonston, Abel Du Petit-Thouars and John Goodridge were also used, though those of Archibald Menzies, the first botanist to visit the archipelago, were not. The visits of these naturalists and their collections are discussed. Darwin's field notes on Galápagos plants, hitherto unpublished, are given, and most of the species identified. In the taxonomic portion of the paper, each taxon included by Hooker is discussed, the nomenclaturally or-taxonomically correct name is indicated, specimens examined by Hooker are enumerated, and additional specimens presumably seen but not cited by him are given. Hooker wrote before our present type concept had evolved, and consequently 51 of his 114 new names needed to be typified, as did four others based on Darwin Galápagos collections. In addition, examination of these specimens revealed one species not yet reported from the archipelago ( Galium canescens ), one new island record ( Chamaesyce hirta on James Island), and one deletion from the flora ( Malachra capitala )     

The Evolving Role of Botanical Gardens and Natural Areas: A Floristic Case Study from Royal Botanical Gardens, Canada

As leaders calling for the conservation of the world's plants, botanical gardens protect plants within living collections. Many also study, manage and restore plants in natural habitats. Royal Botanical Gardens (Ontario,Canada) has integrated both horticultural and natural heritage in its mission for decades. Envisioned by municipal leaders in the 1920s as a combination of nature sanctuaries and civic gardens, RBG now includes forests, wetlands and other habitats, gardens and built spaces. Today RBG is Canada's largest botanical garden on the basis of area.In the 1950s RBG began to inventory plant diversity. The checklist of spontaneous vascular plants now exceeds 1 170 species, of which 752 are native. This is 37% of Ontario's native vascular plants and 19% of the native vascular flora of Canada. The RBG nature sanctuaries are among the richest locations in Canada for species-level diversity.We examine the history of fioristic exploration within RBG and compare plant species-area relationships among protected natural areas in Ontario. This comparison supports the contention that the nature sanctuaries, and in particular Cootes Paradise, could be considered an important area for plants in Canada, and relative to the nation's flora, a biodiversity hotspot. The fact that a candidate vascular plant hotspot for Canada lies within a major botanical garden presents opportunities for raising public awareness of the importance of plant diversity, as well as focusing attention on the scientific and conservation biology needs of communities and individual species in this area.     

A re-evaluation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scinaia</Emphasis> (Nemaliales,Rhodophyta) in the Azores

The genus Scinaia in the Azores is re-evaluated based on historical and recent collections. A combination of morphological and anatomical diagnostic characters was used for species segregation, and a key for Azorean species determination is presented. Anatomical information associated to the hair development is described for the first time for the genus. The occurrence of S. furcellata and S. interrupta is confirmed for the archipelago. The presence of S. acuta is reported for the first time in the Azores, representing a spread from Australia to the N-Atlantic and specifically into the Macaronesian region. Its occurrence in the archipelago and the Canaries is discussed as a possible introduction.     

A study of the genetic variation of the aquatic fern Marsilea quadrifolia L. preserved in botanical collections in Poland and originated from natural populations in Europe

Aim of the present study was to evaluate the genetic diversity of selected European populations of Marsilea quadrifolia L. and to assess the applicability of those genetic resources of Marsilea quadrifolia L. that have been preserved in Polish botanical gardens, for the reintroduction of this species into its historical range in Poland. Three Polish populations that originated from botanical collections (Zabrze, ?arów and Pu?awy) and four natural populations (two from Slovakia (Slovakia I and Slovakia II), one from France and one from Germany) were analyzed using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) markers. A very low level of genetic variation was found both within and between the populations in the study, which likely resulted from a genetic bottleneck probably caused by human activities. Plants with the same AFLP fingerprint were found across several populations; however, singleton samples with a unique AFLP band pattern were also present within all of the populations. The presence of singletons led to relatively high values of Simpson's diversity index, which may suggest a considerable effect of mutations and some possibility of sexual reproduction as sources of the observed variation. The partitioning of molecular variance was calculated using hierarchical AMOVA, which showed that a negligible value of only 0.81% of the variation was explained by the category of population, i.e. plants originating from the botanical collections or from the natural habitats. This result indicates that M. quadrifolia populations from botanical collections resemble natural populations in terms of the level of their genetic variation and that the populations that were obtained from the Polish collections could be used for the successful reintroduction of this species into its historical range in Poland, and a similar situation may be given also in other areas of occurrence of this plant that is under threat throughout its area of occurrence in Europe.     

植物园发展的动向

对国内外植物园近十余年来发展的动向进行评述,列举了近年来一系列重要的植物园国际会议与重大活动,指出当前国际植物园工作的中心任务首先是物种保护。总结和分析我国植物园发展的历史和现状、存在问题以及在园貌建设上与国际先进植物园的差距。这些差距主要表现在：（１）植物的收集量;（２）活植物数据的积累;（３）罕见植物的引种;（４）现代技术的应用。作者最后提出,我国植物园发展应把握的几个主要问题是：（１）既是多功能全方位发展,又应各具特色;（２）生物多样性是植物园永恒的主题;（３）植物园应着重物种迁地保护的研究和实践;（４）植物园应重视栽培和利用植物并着重以药用植物为对象。     

Taxonomic novelties and changes in Philippine Timonius (Rubiaceae,Guettardeae)

The Philippine species of the genus Timonius present numerous taxonomic problems resulting from poorly defined species boundaries, misinterpretation of the origin of type specimens, and historical collections that often bear residual reproductive structures. Based on field observations and examination of herbarium materials, the following taxonomic amendments are proposed: conspecificity of T. philippinensis with T. finlaysonianus, and T. panayensis with T. valetonii, and transfer of T. quadrasii to Ridsdalea. This study also describes six new species from the archipelago: T. alejandroanus, T. dumagat, T. pseudoarboreus, T. ridsdalei, T. spes-vitarum and T. stevendarwinii. Finally, T. nitidus is excluded from the Philippine flora.     

Analysing the Floral Elements of the Lost Tree of Easter Island: A Morphometric Comparison between the Remaining Ex-Situ Lines of the Endemic Extinct Species Sophora toromiro

Sophora toromiro (Phil) Skottsb. is a species that has been extinct in its natural habitat Easter Island (Rapa Nui) for over 50 years. However, seed collections carried out before its extinction have allowed its persistence ex-situ in different botanical gardens and private collections around the world. The progenies of these diverse collections have been classified in different lines, most of them exhibiting high similarity as corroborated by molecular markers. In spite of this resemblance observed between the different lines, one of them (Titze) has dissimilar floral elements, thus generating doubts regarding its species classification. The floral elements (wing, standard and keel) belonging to three different S. toromiro lines and two related species were analyzed using geometric morphometrics. This method was applied in order to quantify the floral shape variation of the standard, wing, and keel between the different lines and control species. Geometric morphometrics analyses were able to distinguish the floral elements at both intra (lines) and inter-specific levels. The present results are on line with the cumulative evidence that supports the Titze line as not being a proper member of the S. toromiro species, but probably a hybridization product or even another species of the Edwardsia section. The reintroduction programs of S. toromiro should consider this information when assessing the authenticity and origin of the lines that will be used to repopulate the island.     

Prospects for Chinese Botanical GardensFoundation items: Supported by Chinese Biodiversity Conservation and Green Development Foundation

In China, a new period of development in the first decade of the 21st Century with rapid urbanization, was marked by investment in construction of over five billion yuan. At this time of rapid change it is important for botanical gardens to follow three principles, “scientific contents, artistic appearance, and cultural display”, so as not to become public parks. The scientific component is important. It is not necessary for every botanical garden to do basic botanical research but they should all be involved in plant conservation issues, especially ex-situ conservation and keep accurate data on their living collections. Although a heavy responsibility this documentation is the foundation and the bottom line of scientific meaning for a botanical garden. Economic plant research, exploring new resources, was a major contribution of botanical gardens historically and remains important for sustainable cities and the national economy of China. Education and ecotourism are important ways for botanical gardens to serve the public displaying the interesting plant collections to enhance relaxation and well-being. It is reasonable to make income through all activities in a botanical garden but this should not be the major goal. It should be understood botanical gardens are comprehensive and multi-functional bodies determined by science, the arts and culture.     

Variation in distribution and abundance of the endemic flora of Juan Fernández Islands, Chile. Pteridophyta

The Juan Fernández Archipelago is located 667 km west of central Chile (33°S) in the Pacific Ocean. It is composed of three islands: Robinson Crusoe (ex-Masatierra), Santa Clara and Marinero Alejandro Selkirk (ex-Masafuera).The first botanical collections were made 250 years after its discovery and colonization. These studies showed the great importance of ferns in the vascular flora of the islands. Of the 53 species described up to the present, 23 are endemic (45%), with one endemic monotypic genus, Thyrsopteris, whose only species is T. elegans Kunze (Dicksoniaceae).During a period of 4 years, I have studied the flora of the islands. There has been surprisingly little change in the distribution of the ferns, considering the devastation of the angiosperm flora. Some species have even increased their abundance, especially the tree ferns. Nevertheless, the more delicate species and those with a more restricted habitat have been reduced in abundance.Ten of the endemic species (43%) are in danger of extinction, such as Asplenium macrosorum and Ophioglossum fernandezianum, four are vulnerable (17%), including Blechnum schottii and Polypodium intermedium, and nine (40%), including Pteris berteroana and Blechnum cycadifolium are not endangered.     

植物引种驯化对近500年人类文明史的影响及其科学意义

近500年来, 植物引种驯化及其广泛栽培深刻改变了世界农业生产的格局, 对促进人类社会文明进步产生了深远的影响。无论在西方殖民地发展史还是在我国明清发展史中, 每一种重要栽培植物的成功引种和驯化, 都对历史进程产生了不可估量的作用。活植物收集是植物园的核心和“灵魂”, 传承了现代植物园几个世纪科学研究的脉络和成就。活植物收集是植物园科学研究的基础和支撑平台, 也是当前和未来发展的根本。基于活植物收集的植物园研究工作具有多学科综合的特征, 既对基础生物学研究具有重要意义, 也与经济繁荣、社会发展和人类日常生活密切相关。