States of uncertainty: governing the empire of biotechnology

The biotechnological revolution presents states and governments with a set of challenges that they have difficulty meeting. Part of the problem is associated with common perceptions of the speed, volume and the radical uncertainty of the new developments. Globalisation is also implicated, especially in relation to the development of the knowledge economy and the role of multinational actors. This in turn contributes to the apparent decline in the confidence of the public that national governments will be effective in addressing mounting concern about the dangers inherent in new techniques and products. Under these circumstances, 'normal' governance begins to look more like 'failure' governance. This article asks whether the effects of the biotechnological revolution on governance can adequately be explained by the critique of imperialism proposed by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, and whether the state is in danger of becoming implicated in sponsorship of modernist schemes to improve the human condition of the kind analysed by James E Scott. Biotechnology does appear to have imperial qualities, while there are strong reasons for states to see biotechnology as a feasible and desirable set of developments. For some critics of biotechnology, like Francis Fukuyama, this is a lethal combination, and the powers of the state should be used to stop biotechnological development. Others, by contrast and more pragmatically, propose a check on what the state will support by the application of precautionary principles. The article concludes that the association between the biotechnology empire and the state, combined with the inescapable duty of the state to be the risk manager of last resort, alerts us to the complexities of uncertainty at the same time as it renders a merely restrictive precautionary approach impracticable.     

Current outline of regulation of Bt-maize and transgenic insects in Mexico

This paper discusses the regulation of Bt-maize and transgenic insects in Mexico, pointing out the current state of the use of these biotechnological developments. In addition, as insect biotechnology is new for Mexico, regulatory protocols are still under development. Technical barriers to using Bacillus thuringensis (Bt)-maize for pest control in Mexico have been deployed by regulatory uncertainty which, associated with cultural factors, underplay biological motives. Although the use of Bt-maize is still controversial in Mexico, since 2009, Bt-maize has been cultivated experimentally.     

What would constitute success for UK biotechnology in 2005?

This paper presents the rationale and results of a scenario exercise concerning possible future developments in UK biotechnology. The final output of this exercise is a 'consensus' vision of what success might look like for the UK in biotechnology in 2005. The 'success scenario' was developed during a two-day workshop through structured discussions in a group of people active in biotechnology in industry, research agencies, consultancies or academe.     

Ecological restoration as precaution and not as restitutional compensation

Ecological restoration has become a major issue in environmental management. To overcome the backward orientation of the restoration concept (focusing on reference states and natural ecosystems) the introduction of a precautionary principle is proposed. The principle has been developed for decision-making under high uncertainty about the probability and severity of an environmental damage. Meanwhile, it has been accepted in many countries of the world as a guiding principle for environmental legislation. Likewise it is the basis for international conventions aiming at the conservation of biodiversity. Nevertheless, biodiversity is still neglected in large reclamation projects. Several links between precaution and restoration are described. Restoration can be used to prevent future damage. Otherwise restoration is plagued by uncertainty about the outcome of the measures and may have negative effects or even fail. An analysis of common evaluation methods of restoration projects shows that most approaches focus on comparison of restoration results with a reference state, and are thus useless in a precautionary context. Other methods (e.g. comparing restored with unrestored sites) require data gathered by long-term observation (monitoring) of socio-economically defined desired states (Leitbild). Two large-scale restoration projects are analyzed, coastal land reclamation in Korea and open cast mining reclamation in Germany. Both projects had or have honorific aims and are legally admissible. However, they violate both international law based on precaution and simple rules of prudence or wise use. Costly post hoc ‘restoration’ measures are the usual consequence.     

Photobioreactors: production systems for phototrophic microorganisms

Microalgae have a large biotechnological potential for producing valuable substances for the feed, food, cosmetics and pharmacy industries as well as for biotechnological processes. The design of the technical and technological basis for photobioreactors is the most important issue for economic success in the field of phototrophic biotechnology. For future applications, open pond systems for large-scale production seem to have a lower innovative potential than closed systems. For high-value products in particular, closed systems of photobioreactors seem to be the more promising field for technical developments despite very different approaches in design.     

香蕉生物技术研究进展

近50年来香蕉的生产得到了稳步的发展,同时正遭受越来越严重的病虫、霜冻和台风的侵害。鲜食蕉雌雄性高度不育的特性,使得传统的育种方法难以进行香蕉的遗传改良。这些现状迫切要求香蕉生物技术的不断发展和深入。近10年来,在香蕉体细胞胚胎发生、原生质体培养、基因克隆和序列分析以及基因转化等方面都取得了可喜的成果,并预计于2006年完成香蕉基因组的测序 。     

WHAT PUTS THE ‘YUCK’ IN THE YUCK FACTOR?

The advances in biotechnology have given rise to a discussion concerning the strong emotional reaction expressed by the public towards biotechnological innovations. This reaction has been named the ‘Yuck‐factor’ by several theorists of bioethics. Leon Kass, the former chairman of the President's council on bioethics, has appraised this public reaction as ‘an emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power fully to articulate it’. 1 Similar arguments have been forwarded by the Catholic Church, several Protestant denominations and the Pro‐Life movement. Several bioethicists have, however, opposed the idea of a disgust‐based morality. 2 Recent findings in cognitive science support the view that the strong negative emotions people often experience when faced with biotechnological ideas are not expressions of inner wisdom. The negative emotions may rather be the result of a cognitive violation the biotechnological innovations easily cause. Due to their evolutionary background, people have certain automatic and quick cognitive tendencies routinely used for categorizing and reasoning about nature, usually termed ‘folk biology’. Biotechnological processes like hybridisation and cloning clearly violate several of the cognitive rules people naturally apply for the explanation and categorization of their natural environment. As the cognitive tendencies routinely applied to the explanation of biological world are violated, an emotional response of fear, disgust and of something unnatural being underway is easily provoked. It is suggested in this paper that the reason behind the Yuck‐factor is not a deep inner wisdom, but a violation of natural human cognitive tendencies concerning the biological world.     

Genomics: shifts in metaphorical landscape between 2000 and 2003

Modern biotechnology has been characterized by being surrounded by scientific and public debate and by interest conflicts. An early Danish debate and regulation has been criticized for inhibiting or retarding development and thus growth. Though much regulation and debate have been transferred to the European arena, their role and extension are still an issue. In this paper, the often anticipated innovation-inhibiting effects of regulation are questioned by giving an account of regulations and debates in Denmark. An account which includes the shifting positions of industry, the research community, environmental groups, regulators and other interest groups. The paper indicates that the regulatory measures, introduced as a response to public and interest group critique, have generally reduced industrial uncertainty and promoted industrial Danish biotechnology development. It is further found that regulation and debate changed the rate and direction of new biotechnology development, contributing to technology acceptance, without however ensuring it. The paper thus questions the caricatured assumptions in economics and industrial policy that regulation restrict techno-economic growth. The paper further states regulation and controversies to have contributed actively to the specific technology development, but also states the difficulties in setting radically different technology development agendas.     

Applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology

Key message

Present review summarizes the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, including plant expression of nanobodies, plant biotechnological applications, nanobody-based immunodetection, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens.

Abstract

Nanobodies (Nbs) are variable domains of heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) isolated from camelids. In spite of their single domain structure, nanobodies display many unique features, such as small size, high stability, and cryptic epitopes accessibility, which make them ideal for sophisticated applications in plants and animals. In this review, we summarize the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, focusing on nanobody expression in plants, plant biotechnological applications, determination of plant toxins and pathogens, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens. Prospects and challenges of nanobody applications in plants are also discussed.

     

菲律宾农业生物技术年报(2011年)

菲律宾生物技术监管体系始终坚持以科学为依据,其他发展中国家逐渐将菲律宾作为生物技术政策和法规方面的楷模。第一种本地开发的转基因作物“Bt茄子”可能在2013年初前实现商业化,“金色水稻”可能紧随其后。目前没有生物技术相关的贸易中断的报道,美国出口的转基因产品在2010年继续保持增长。菲律宾农业政策仍然是以食品保障为导向,政策的制定工作一直以来保持积极态势。但是,最近批准的《菲律宾发展计划》支持了转基因产品的标签工作以及对环境风险评估采取谨慎态度。     

从生命伦理到生命法

20世纪下半叶以来,生命科技的发展极大地增进了人类的福祉,但也引生了大量伦理与法律问题,使得生命科技的伦理调整与法律规范成为必然。在生命科技发展的过程中,生命伦理发挥了重要的引领作用,它以其自身特定的机制保障着生命科技的健康发展。生命伦理与生命法存在着明显区别,这些区别使得生命伦理在现代生命科技社会中无法独立承担引领生命科技健康发展的使命,而必须与生命法共同在生命科技社会治理中发挥作用。在现代生命科技社会中,生命法具有不可取代的重要作用,正是基于此,20世纪70年代以来,各国兴起了一场生命伦理法律化的运动,纷纷强化了本国的生命法制建设,改变了以往单纯依赖生命伦理调整生命科技活动的历史,使法律也参与到生命科技的规制中来。人类生命科技治理必然要经历一个由单纯依赖生命伦理到依赖生命法与生命伦理相结合的发展阶段。当前,我国生命立法还存在诸多不足,难以适应生命科技发展的现实需要,需要采取相应的完善对策。     

The Genus Gluconobacter Oxydans: Comprehensive Overview of Biochemistry and Biotechnological Applications

ABSTRACT

The genus Gluconobacter comprises some of the most frequently used microorganisms when it comes to biotechnological applications. Not only has it been involved in “historical” production processes, such as vinegar production, but in the last decades many bioconversion routes for special and rare sugars involving Gluconobacter have been developed. Among the most recent are the biotransformations involved in the production of L-ribose and miglitol, both very promising pharmaceutical lead molecules. Most of these processes make use of Gluconobacter's membrane-bound polyol dehydrogenases. However, recently other enzymes have also caught the eye of industrial biotechnology. Among them are dextran dextrinase, capable of transglucosylating substrate molecules, and intracellular NAD-dependent polyol dehydrogenases, of interest for co-enzyme regeneration. As such, Gluconobacter is an important industrial microbial strain, but it also finds use in other fields of biotechnology, such as biosensor-technology. This review aims to give an overview of the myriad of applications for Gluconobacter, with a special focus on some recent developments.     

Appropriate biotechnology for sustainable agriculture in developing countries

Many transnational organizations are investing heavily in biotechnological research¹. They are primarily interested in activities such as the sale of chemicals and/or food processing. Consequently, research leading to an expansion in the use of chemicals or a reduction of commodity prices is advantageous to those companies. An increase in the sale of chemicals can, for instance, be expected as a result of research on herbicide resistance², a further reduction of commodity prices can be stimulated by biotechnological research directed at cost reduction or finding cheaper substitutes³. Western governmental research institutes and universities contribute to these research directions by cooperating closely with these companies^4,5.In view of these developments, it can be expected that biotechnological research will contribute to a further decrease in commodity prices and further instability of the agricultural structure in many developing countries and, consequently, an acceleration of migration to the already overcrowded cities.The question is, can biotechnology also contribute to sustainable development in rural areas by assisting small-scale and semi-subsistence farmers? I suggest it can.     

The Structure and Expression of Amylase Genes in Mammals: an Overview

Abstract

Austria is a small European country with a small number of universities and biotechnological industries, but with great efforts in the implementation of environmental consciousness and corresponding legal standards. This review attempts to describe the biotechnological landscape of Austria, thereby focusing on the highlights in research by industry, universities, and research laboratories, as published during 1990 to early 1995. These will include microbial metabolite (organic acids, antibiotics) and biopolymer (polyhydroxibutyrate, S-layers) production; enzyme (cellulases, hemicellulases, ligninases) technology and biocatalysis; environmental biotechnology; plant breeding and plant protection; mammalian cell products; fermenter design; and bioprocess engineering.     

Microalgal biotechnology: Carotenoid production by the green algae<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dunaliella salina</Emphasis>

Unicellular green algae of the genusDunaliella thrive in extreme environmental conditions such as high salinity, low pH, high irradiance and subzero temperatures. Species ofDunaliella are well known in the alga biotechnological industry and are employed widely for the production of valuable biochemicals, such as carotenoids. Some strains ofDunaliella are cultivated commercially in large outdoor ponds and are harvested to produce dry algal meals, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids and oils for the health food industry, and coloring agents for the food and cosmetic industries. During the past decade, the advances in molecular biology and biochemistry of microalgae, along with the advances in biotechnology of microalgal mass cultivation, enabled this microalga to become a staple of commercial exploitation. In particular, the advent of molecular biology and mutagenesis inDunaliella has permitted enhancements in the carotenoids content of this green alga, making it more attractive for biotechnological applications. Accordingly, the present review summarizes the recent developments and advances in biotechnology of carotenoid production inDunaliella.     

Extrapolation, uncertainty factors, and the precautionary principle

This essay examines the relationship between the precautionary principle and uncertainty factors used by toxicologists to estimate acceptable exposure levels for toxic chemicals from animal experiments. It shows that the adoption of uncertainty factors in the United States in the 1950s can be understood by reference to the precautionary principle, but not by cost-benefit analysis because of a lack of relevant quantitative data at that time. In addition, it argues that uncertainty factors continue to be relevant to efforts to implement the precautionary principle and that the precautionary principle should not be restricted to cases involving unquantifiable hazards.     

Landscape Ideologies,Indigenous Governance,and Land Use Change in the Ecuadorian Amazon, 1960–1992

In recent years, states have ceded governance over large territories to indigenous organizations. This article examines the history of an early case of territorial governance (dating from the 1970s) to probe the social, political, and environmental processes that occur when an indigenous social movement becomes a governing body. It argues that indigenous organizations can quickly learn to “see like states” (Scott 1998) without adopting the particular visions promoted by the state that facilitated their new role. In the case explored here, indigenous leaders created landscape improvement schemes that went beyond those promoted by the state and others in terms of changing the legibility of land use and tenure categories. Furthermore, their schemes had significant impacts on forest cover as evidenced by remotely sensed images. These processes challenge theories that position the state as the primary arbitrator of human-environmental relations as well as theories that dichotomize between states and indigenous organizations.     

New racisms,new racial subjects? The neo-liberal moment and the racial landscape of contemporary Britain

Abstract

The articles in this volume reflect upon a very specific moment in the social architecture of British society: a moment that brings financial meltdown together with some sizeable shifts in the racial and ethnic landscape of the UK. As a ‘neo-liberal revolution’ heralds the end of public services and the end of the welfare state, it proclaims ‘the end of race’ as well. But cultural retrenchment and coded xenophobia have also been sweeping the political terrain, accompanied by ‘new racisms’ and ‘new racial subjects’ that only close contextual analysis can unpick. Against those who suggest that we live in a post-racial time, the research presented offers friction. By focusing on particular locations in Britain at a particular moment, the articles explore local stories of ‘race’ and racism across changing sociopolitical ground.     

Knowledge of,and Attitudes Towards Health-related Biotechnology Applications Amongst Australian Year 10 High School Students

Modern biotechnology has a large and rapidly increasing impact on society. New advances in genetics, stem cells and other areas hold great potential for human health but also presenting socioscientific issues that commonly divide public opinion. While knowledge is necessary to develop informed opinions about biotechnology, they may also be influenced by polarized discourse and fiction in the media. Here, we examined prior knowledge about and attitudes towards health-related biotechnological applications in Year 10 high school students from Western Australia using online questionnaires. The impact of teaching on students’ understanding was tested by repeating the questionnaire after a lesson. Finally, students’ argumentation skills were examined by recording responses to statements about biotechnological applications. We found that, prior to instruction, most students exhibited a reasonable understanding of biotechnology. There was little evidence for alternative conceptions, and instruction led to a diversification in understanding. Attitudes towards biotechnology were generally positive but varied. Despite interest in biotechnological issues, argument for positions was generally cognitive-affective in nature. Consequently, biotechnology is a relevant topic for science education, and presents excellent opportunities to build on pre-existing knowledge. Rather than expanding students’ knowledge, our results suggest educators should focus on deepening existing understanding and strengthening argumentation skills.     

Genomics and self-knowledge: implications for societal research and debate

Abstract

When the Human Genome Project (HGP) was launched, our genome was presented as our ‘blueprint’, a metaphor reflecting a genetic deterministic epistemology. Eventually, however, the HGP undermined rather than strengthened the understanding of genomes as blueprints and of genes as ultimate causal units. A symbolical turning point was the discovery that the human genome only contains～22,500 genes. Initially, this was seen as a narcissistic offence. Gradually, however, it strengthened the shift from traditional genetics and biotechnology (i.e., gene-oriented approaches) to genomics, i.e. genome-oriented or systems approaches, emphasizing complexity. The 20th century can be regarded as the century of biotechnology and of the gene. Its history demonstrated that the will to know (notably: to know ourselves) has never been a disinterested affair: it is driven by a will to improve (notably: to improve ourselves). In this article it is claimed that, as genomics takes us beyond a genetic deterministic understanding of life, this must have consequences for societal research and debate as well. Policies for self-improvement will increasingly rely on the use of complex interpretation. Therefore, the emphasis must shift from issues such as genetic manipulation and human enhancement to issues involved in governance of novel forms of information.