Height and BMI of Italian immigrants to the USA, 1908–1970

We analyze self-reported anthropometric data pertaining to 2140 adults who emigrated to the United States, mainly from southern Italy, between 1908-1928 and 1960-1970. The mean height of immigrant men was 165.5 cm: they were taller than contemporary southern Italian men by 0.5-7.3 cm in different periods. The mean height of the Italian immigrant women born before 1952 was 157.6 cm, less than the national average. At the end of the 1990s, national women average height was 162 cm, 159.5 cm for southern women. There were age-related increases of weight and BMI: overweight was more prevalent in the 40-49 years age category. In the male sample, the mean values of BMI were within the overweight range in all age classes. The prevalence of obesity was higher in the male sample than among US men, whereas it was virtually identical in the women's sample and much higher than the values reported for several European countries for the period 1970-1980.     

Secular changes are different in distinct subgroups of the growing population

The change of living conditions in East Germany after the German reunification in 1990 led to intensive secular changes in growth and development. Anthropometric data of height, weight, BMI and thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer are compared from two cross-sectional samples of German children and adolescents aged 6 to 18 years. The first sample was measured around 1989 and the second 10 years later around 1999. Both samples contain children and adolescents from the urban as well as from the rural population. The secular changes reported here are based on the comparison of medians of height, weight, BMI and subcutaneous fat layer thickness calculated for yearly age categories. Subsequently, medians of the 10% border categories are compared. These border categories contain the 10% smallest, lightest, slimmest or leanest subjects and the 10% tallest, heaviest, most corpulent or most obese subjects respectively of a yearly age category. The young generation shifted between 1989 and 1999 to a taller stature in the small as well as in the tall category. The secular pattern of measurements, which mark corpulence, is sex-specific and differs from that of length measurements. In general the light or lean subjects changed only little, however, there are clear age- and sex-specific changes in the upper border categories. Weight and BMI increased markedly in the upper border categories in young preadolescent children, but did not change much in adolescent boys of these category aged 15 and 16 and decreased in adolescent girls. Also the subcutaneous fat layer increased in the upper border category in preadolescent children, but decreased in adolescent boys and girls.     

Some secular changes in the growth of American-born and native Japanese children

Three hundred and sixteen (35%) of the American-born Japanese children whose height, weight, and skeletal age were recorded in 1956–57 were reexamined as young adults between 1968 and 1974, when they were found to be taller, heavier, and shorter legged than men and women in Japan who were born in the same years as they. These differences between the American-born and the native Japanese adults were relatively smaller than they had been during childhood, due to both an acceleration in the growth rate of the native Japanese and a concomitant decline in that of the American-born Japanese during the intervening years. A comparison of our 1956–57 data with Kondo and Eto's findings in Los Angeles in 1971 shows that there has been very little increase in the size of California-Japanese children since 1956. The curves of average heights of native Japanese children 6 to 20 years of age, at 10-year intervals from 1900 to 1970, disclosed the changing rate at which they grew during different decades of that period. Those curves and other data discussed in this paper provide additional evidence of the biological superiority of the human female as compared with the male.     

BMI in Japanese children since 1948: no evidence of a major rise in the prevalence of obesity in Japan

The dramatic world-wide trend towards increasing body weight seems to be less obvious in the Japanese population. The aim of this study is to extract potentially useful information regarding childhood and adolescence obesity in Japan from series of mean height and mean body mass index between 1948 and 2003. Mean values for height and weight of Japanese boys and girls aged 5+ to 17+ years were obtained from the "Reports on School Health Survey", Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, comprising approximately 4.5% of all children and adolescents in Japan between 1948 and 2003. The data were fitted by the Preece and Baines model (Preece & Baines 1978) in order to obtain estimates of the age of peak height velocity (APHV) and final height. Isochrones for height and BMI were calculated based upon measurements that were obtained at the same chronological ages at different historic epochs. The APHV as estimated by Preece & Baines (1978) has decreased from 14.07 to 12.03 years in Japanese boys, and from 11.80 to 9.92 years in Japanese girls, indicating that the tempo of child and adolescent maturation (maturational tempo) has accelerated. Body height increased by 10.1 cm in near adult 17+ year old Japanese males and by 5.7 cm in 17+ year old Japanese females since 1948. Due to the acceleration and the earlier attainment of adult stature, isochrones for height tend to diverge for prepubertal ages and to converge for postpubertal ages. The same is true for weight. Body weight has increased by 11.8 kg in near adult males, and by 4.4 kg in near adult females. Also BMI has increased since 1948. But in contrast to height and weight, the rise in BMI only reflects the acceleration of the maturational tempo. Tempo-conditioned isochrones for BMI are almost horizontal, and even tended to temporarily decrease during the 60ies and the 70's. The BMI of Japanese children and adolescents dramatically contrasts the recent and historic BMI changes in the Western populations. The present study provides no evidence of any major rise in the prevalence of obesity in Japan as expressed by mean BMI for age and time of birth, and suggests that Japanese children and adolescents may be more resistant against those environmental factors that have caused obesity in the affluent Western societies.     

Normal weight and optimal weight--description and evaluation of body mass

In this paper body mass and body mass in relation to height is analyzed, based on a cross-sectional sample of 21,648 boys and men, and 21,391 girls and women living in villages, towns, and cities in all new federal states of Germany. The sample is stratified to sex, age, territory and size of the settlement. Weight to height regression lines are compared to the results of weight categories by height. The results of the normal weight categories are compared to the optimal weights of Broca, Ott, and M?hr as well as to the standard weights of the US-population. It is pointed out that body mass does not only depend on age and type of body shape during growth age, but also during adulthood. Curves of normal weight are given for children and adolescents in relation to their sex, age, height, and type of body shape. The median values of weight are published as tables for adults.     

Sex of preceding sibling and anthropometrics of subsequent offspring at birth and in young adulthood: A population‐based study in Sweden

In many mammal species with sexual dimorphism producing sons is energetically more demanding to the mother than producing daughters. Although some studies in humans have suggested that offspring born after a brother have a smaller birth weight and adult height when compared with those born after a sister, little is known about this intergenerational cost of producing sons. We aimed to study whether the sex of preceding sibling is associated with anthropometrics of the subsequent child at birth and in young adulthood. This population‐based study was carried out on two data sets derived from the Swedish registers. Information on birth weight and length was obtained for 752,723 children of both sexes. Adult weight, height and muscle strength were available for 506,326 men. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that boys and girls born after a brother were, respectively, 18 and 9 g lighter and 0.08 and 0.03 cm (P < 0.001) shorter at birth than those born after a sister. Adjustment for gestational age decreased the magnitude of the associations [10 g and 0.04 cm (P < 0.001) in men and nonsignificant estimates in women], suggesting that part of the lower mean birth weight and length of individuals born after a brother was due to a shorter gestation. In young adulthood, men with a preceding brother showed 0.16 kg more in weight, 0.3% higher body mass index (P < 0.001) and a trend towards reduced height and muscle strength. Our results suggest that even though the sex of the previous child is associated with the anthropometrics of the subsequent child, the effect sizes are very small questioning whether this mechanism has adaptive value in contemporary humans. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:471–478, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Differences in Body Fat and Central Adiposity between Swedes and European Immigrants: The Malmö Diet and Cancer Study

Objective: Comparative data on ecological differences in body fatness and fat distribution within Europe are sparse. Migration studies may provide information on the impact of environmental factors on body size in different populations. The objective was to investigate differences in adiposity between European immigrants and native Swedes, specifically to examine gender differences and the effect of time since immigration, and to compare two selected immigrant groups with their native countrymen. Research Methods and Procedures: A cross‐sectional analysis of 27,808 adults aged 45 to 73 years participating in the Malmö Diet and Cancer prospective cohort study in Sweden was performed. Percentage body fat (impedance analysis) and waist‐hip ratio (WHR) were compared between Swedish‐born and foreign‐born participants. Results: Obesity was 40% more prevalent in non‐Swedish Europeans compared with Swedes. Controlling for age, height, smoking, physical activity, and occupation, it was found that women born in the former Yugoslavia, southern Europe, Hungary, and Finland had a significantly higher percentage of body fat, and those from Hungary, Poland, and Germany had more centralized adiposity compared with Swedish women. Men born in the former Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Denmark had a significantly higher mean percentage of body fat compared with Swedish‐born men, whereas Yugoslavian, Finnish, and German men differed significantly in mean WHR. Length of residence in Sweden was inversely associated with central adiposity in immigrants. A comparison between German and Danish immigrants, their respective native populations, and Swedes indicated an intermediate positioning of German immigrants with regard to body mass index and WHR. Discussion: Differences in general and central adiposity by country of origin appear to remain after migration. Central adiposity seems to be more influenced than fatness per se by time of residency in Sweden.     

Exercise,smoking, and calcium intake during adolescence and early adulthood as determinants of peak bone mass. Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study Group.

OBJECTIVE--To evaluate the contribution to peak bone mass of exercise, smoking, and calcium intake in adolescents and young adults. DESIGN--Prospective cohort study with end point measurement (bone mineral density) after 11 years'' follow up for lifestyle. SETTING--Five university hospital clinics. SUBJECTS--264 (153 females, 111 males) subjects aged 9 to 18 years at the beginning of the follow up and 20 to 29 years at the time of measurement of bone mineral density. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE--Bone mineral density of lumbar spine and femoral neck by dual energy x ray absorptiometry; measures of physical activity and smoking and estimates of calcium intake repeated three times during follow up. RESULTS--In the groups with the lowest and highest levels of exercise the femoral bone mineral densities (adjusted for age and weight) were 0.918 and 0.988 g/cm2 for women (P = 0.015, analysis of covariance) and 0.943 and 1.042 g/cm2 for men (P = 0.005), respectively; at the lumbar spine the respective values were 1.045 and 1.131 (P = 0.005) for men. In men the femoral bone mineral densities (adjusted for age, weight, and exercise) were 1.022 and 0.923 g/cm2 for the groups with the lowest and highest values of smoking index (P = 0.054, analysis of covariance). In women the adjusted femoral bone mineral density increased by 4.7% together with increasing calcium intake (P = 0.089, analysis of covariance). In multiple regression analysis on bone mineral density of the femoral neck, weight, exercise, age, and smoking were independent predictors for men; with weight, exercise, and age for women. These predictors together explained 38% of the variance in bone mineral density in women and 46% in men. At the lumbar spine, weight, smoking, and exercise were predictors for men; and only weight for women. CONCLUSIONS--Regular exercise and not smoking is important in achieving maximal peak bone mass in adolescents and young adults.     

Height and weight in Germany, evidence from the German Socio-Economic Panel, 2002

This paper examines the socio-economic variation in height and weight using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel. Results reinforce previous research insofar as height is associated with socio-economic differences. For example, a low maternal schooling level or a lower position in the income distribution is negatively correlated with the height of West Germans. Furthermore, there is a west-east and a north-south gradient in height in Germany. BMI is also determined by individuals' characteristics with similar underlying patterns. That is, in both West and East Germany, women with low income and low education have a higher BMI whereas the better educated women weigh less.     

Trend in Height of Turkish and Moroccan Children Living in The Netherlands

ObjectivesTo study trends in height of Turkish and Moroccan immigrant children living in The Netherlands, to investigate the association between height and background characteristics in these children, and to calculate height-for-age-references data for these groups.DesignNationwide cross-sectional data collection from children aged 0 to 18 years by trained professionals in 1997 and 2009. The study population consisted of 2,822 Turkish 2,779 Moroccan, and 13,705 Dutch origin children in 1997and 2,548 Turkish, 2,594 Moroccan, and 11,255 Dutch origin children in 2009. Main outcome measures: Mean height in cm, and mean height standard deviation scores.ResultsIn 2009, mean height at the age of 18y was similar for Turkish and Moroccan children: 177 cm for boys and 163 cm for girls, which was 2 to 3 cm taller than in 1997. Still, Turkish and Moroccan adolescents were 5.5 cm (boys) to 7 cm (girls) shorter than their Dutch peers. No significant differences were found in mean height standard deviation scores across the educational level of the parents, geographical region, primary language spoken at home, and immigrant generation.ConclusionsWhile the secular height increase in Dutch children came to a halt, the trend in Turkish and Moroccan children living in The Netherlands continued. However, large differences in height between Turkish and Moroccan children and Dutch children remain. We found no association with the background characteristics. We recommend the use of the new growth charts for children of Turkish and Moroccan origin who have a height-for-age below -2SD on the growth chart for Dutch children.     

Weight-height relationships and body mass index: some observations from the Diverse Populations Collaboration

Body mass index (BMI, weight (kg)/height (m)(2)) is the most widely used weight-height index worldwide. This universal use of BMI assumes that the rationale for its use is universally applicable. We examine two possible rationales for using BMI as a universal measure. The first rationale is that BMI is strongly correlated with weight, but is independent of height. The second rationale is that BMI correctly captures the relationship between weight and height, which implies that the slope of log weight regressed on log height is 2. We examined the weight-height relationship in 25 diverse population samples of men and women from the US, Europe, and Asia. The analysis included 72 subgroups with a total of 385,232 adults aged 25 years and older. Although BMI was highly correlated with weight in all studies, a significant, negative correlation between BMI and height was found in 31 out of 40 subgroups of men (r=-0.004 to -0.133) and 32 of 32 groups of women (r=-0.016 to -0.205). When log weight was regressed on log height, the 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the slopes did not include 2 in 25 out of 40 male subgroups. The summary estimate of the slopes across studies of men was 1.92 (95% CI, 1.87-1.97). For women, slopes were lower than 2 in 28 of 32 subgroups with a summary estimate of 1.45 (95% CI, 1.39-1.51). In most of the populations, BMI is not independent of height; weight does not universally vary with the square of height; and the relationship between weight and height differs significantly between males and females. The use of a single BMI standard for both men and women cannot be justified on the basis of weight-height relationships.     

Secular changes in growth and obesity in perinatal population

The survey was conducted during the last 25 years and included 2414 healthy women who delivered in "Sestre milosrdnice" University Hospital Center in Zagreb, Croatia and their newborns. The aim was to establish the secular trend of some anthropological factors through two generations. Anthropological features such as pre-pregnancy weight, body mass index before pregnancy, height, age, place of residence, educational level, parity and the newborn weight were registered. The study was randomized. The mothers from the city of Zagreb and the surrounding villages, rural areas are examined. The women age was different and also different levels of education and socioeconomic status. The study included women who had not given birth yet, who had delivered once, twice, and three or more times. Maternal height in 25 years increased by 3.1cm. and increases with education. The pre-pregnancy weight increased 2.8 kg and increases with age, parity and rural life. The body mass index (BMI) which the women had before pregnancy was calculated, and according to its value the participants were divided in three groups: with normal weight, overweight and fat. Among the studied periods BMI does not differ significantly, but does differ significantly with respect to the ordinal number of births, parity, age and living environment. Higher BMI was associated with deliveries to heavier children.     

Seroprevalence of measles-, mumps- and rubella-specific IgG antibodies in german children and adolescents and predictors for seronegativity

We have undertaken a seroprevalence study with more than 13,000 children, who had been included in the German KIGGS survey, a representative sample of children and adolescents 0-17 years of age. The IgG titres against measles, mumps and rubella were determined in 1 to 17 year olds While 88.8% of the children were MMR-vaccinated at least once, 76.8% of children aged 1 to 17 years showed prevalence of antibodies to MMR. The highest seronegativity was seen with respect to mumps. Gender differences were most pronounced with regard to rubella IgG titres: girls aged 14 to 17 years were best protected, although seronegativity in 6.8% of this vulnerable group still shows the need of improvement. Search for predictors of missing seroprevalence identified young age to be the most important predictor. Children living in the former West and children born outside of Germany had a higher risk of lacking protection against measles and rubella, while children with a migration background but born in Germany were less often seronegative to measles antibodies than their German contemporaries. An association of seronegativity and early vaccination was seen for measles but not for mumps and rubella. A high maternal educational level was associated with seronegativity to measles and rubella. In vaccinated children, seronegativity was highest for mumps and lowest for rubella. For mumps, high differences were observed for seronegativity after one-dose and two-dose vaccination, respectively. Seronegativity increases as time since last vaccination passes thus indicating significant waning effects for all three components of MMR.     

BMI may overestimate the prevalence of obesity among women of lower socioeconomic status

Objective: Our objective was to examine gender differences in height and weight associated with socioeconomic status (SES) and the consequent effect on body mass index in a multiethnic society. Research Methods and Procedures: A cross‐sectional study, the First Israeli National Health and Nutrition Survey, was performed on a representative population sample of 3246 adults 25 to 64 years of age, between the years 1999 to 2001. Height and weight were measured, and BMI and other weight‐height indices were calculated. SES was assessed by income and education. Results: Age‐adjusted height was significantly lower at lower levels of SES among both women and men (p < 0.001). As opposed to men, women of lower SES were heavier than those of higher SES, and the mean age‐adjusted weight was 4.6 kg higher among those of lower SES (p < 0.001). Thus, using the standard index of BMI, the prevalence of obesity was significantly higher among shorter women. Discussion: In this group of Israeli adults, the unfavorable effect of low SES on BMI was evident among women, partly due to their decreased height combined with increased weight common in this socioeconomic sector. Since BMI is only partly independent of height, it may overestimate the prevalence of obesity among women of lower SES. Alternative measures for classifying obesity in the lower SES groups that put less emphasis on height may be considered and studied.     

Reduced final height and indications for insulin resistance in 20 year olds born small for gestational age: regional cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the association between low birth weight and increased risk of developing impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridaemia, and hypertension in middle age is apparent by the age of 20 in people born small for gestational age. DESIGN: Regional cohort study. SETTING: Maternity registry, Haguenau, France. SUBJECTS: 236 full term singleton babies born small for gestational age (birth weight or length, or both, below third centile) during 1971-8 and 281 with normal birth weight (between 25th and 75th centile). All subjects were contacted and evaluated at a mean (SD) age of 20.6 (2.1) years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Adult height; concentrations of glucose, insulin, and proinsulin during an oral glucose tolerance test; lipid and fibrinogen concentrations; and blood pressure. RESULTS: After sex and target height were adjusted for, subjects who had been born small for gestational age were significantly shorter at age 20 than those with a normal birth weight (men 4.5 cm shorter (95% confidence interval 6.0 to 3.0 cm); women 3.94 cm shorter (5.2 to 2.7 cm)). After sex and body mass index were adjusted for, mean plasma glucose concentration 30 minutes after a glucose load, fasting insulin concentration (in women), and insulin and proinsulin concentrations 30 and 120 minutes after a glucose load were significantly higher in subjects who had been born small for gestational age than in those with a normal birth weight. Mean lipid and fibrinogen concentrations and blood pressure were not different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Intrauterine growth retardation has long term consequences such as reduced final height Raised insulin and proinsulin concentrations are present in young adults born small for gestational age and could be markers of early changes in insulin sensitivity.     

The interaction of childhood height and childhood BMI in the prediction of young adult BMI

The purpose of this study was to examine the interaction of childhood height and childhood BMI in the prediction of young adult BMI. The 2,802 subjects in this study were from the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH). The subjects' heights and weights were measured in 3rd grade (mean age 8.7 years) and again in 12th grade (mean age 18.3 years). The associations and interactions between height (cm) and BMI (kg/m(2)) were assessed using mixed linear regression models with adult BMI as the dependent variable. We found a significant interaction between childhood height and childhood BMI in the prediction of adult BMI (P < 0.0001). Stratification by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reference quintiles revealed that a positive association between childhood height and adult BMI existed only for those subjects in the top quintile of childhood BMI, within whom predicted adult BMI ranged from 27.5 (95% confidence interval = 26.4-28.6) for those in the shortest height quintile to 30.2 (95% confidence interval = 29.7-30.6) for those in the highest height quintile. Among children with high BMI levels, those who were taller, as compared to those who were shorter, had significantly higher young adult BMI levels. This pattern seems primarily due to the positive association of childhood height and childhood BMI. Clinicians should recognize the risk of excess body weight in young adulthood for all children who have a high BMI, and pay special attention to those who are tall, because their childhood height will not protect them from subsequent weight gain and elevated BMI.     

Reliability of self-reported body height and weight of adult Japanese women

The purpose of this study was to validate the self-reported body height and weight of adult Japanese women. The subjects were women, aged 20-42 years, who participated in a survey on eating disorders in women in 1995. Physically measured height and weight data were obtained for 368 (89.8%) of the 469 women who self-reported their height and weight. The report-based heights and weights were compared with the measured values. The correlation coefficients for height and weight were 0.990 and 0.963 (p < 0.0001), respectively. Mean reported height was 0.1 cm shorter and mean reported weight 0.2 kg lighter than the measured values. Shorter women tended to report a taller height than their actual height, and heavier women to report a lower weight than their actual weight. Despite these limitations, the self-reported heights and weights of adult Japanese women were precise and accurate, and their use in epidemiological surveys is considered acceptable.     

The relationship of birth weight with longitudinal changes in body composition in adult women

Most research on birth weight and adult health status has reported adult measures at a single time point. This study examined the relationship of self‐reported birth weight to longitudinal changes in adult body composition in 587 women of the Michigan Bone Health and Metabolism Study, followed from 1992 to 2007 and aged 24–50 years at baseline. Linear mixed models were used to estimate the association between three birth weight categories and women's 15‐year changes in adult weight, height, BMI, waist and hip circumference, waist‐to‐hip ratio, and fat, lean, and skeletal muscle mass. Body composition measures increased in all women over the 15‐year study period. At their adult baseline, high birth weight women weighed 13% more and had waist circumference and lean mass measures that were 5.51 cm and 3.91 kg larger, respectively, than normal birth weight women. No differences were observed in adult body composition between low and normal birth weight women and rates of change in the adult measures did not vary across the birth weight groups. Women heavier at birth continued to be heavier through adulthood, corroborating previous reports based on single measures of adult body composition. Research to address whether higher adult body composition in high birth weight women increases the longitudinal risk for obesity‐related chronic diseases is needed.