Changes in Permeability of Brush Border Membrane Vesicles from Spodoptera littoralis Midgut Induced by Insecticidal Crystal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis

Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) are thought to induce pore formation in midgut cell membranes of susceptible insects. Cry1Ca, which is significantly active in Spodoptera littoralis, made brush border membrane vesicles permeable to KCl (osmotic swelling was monitored by the light scattering technique); the marginally active ICPs Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac did not.     

A proteomic analysis approach to study insecticidal crystal proteins from different strains of Bacillus thuringiensis

We obtained and compared a new cry2Ac6 gene from Bacillus wuhanensis 140, and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) subsp. kurstaki 4.0718 and B.t. kurstaki XL004 that share a similar genetic background but occupy different ecological niches. Using a proteomic approach and function-based activity profiling, we systemically identified the insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) from the three Bt species, which were found to be mainly distributed at pH 4–7 on two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE) gels by PDQuest software. The proteins that exhibited a significant difference in expression were excised, digested in-gel and identified by MALDI-TOF-MS. Thirty-three differently expressed proteins were identified from the three Bt strains. The Cry2Ac6, Cry1Ab16, CryIG, CryH2, CryI, CryINA67-1 and CryI⁺ crystal protein mixture from B.t. wuhanensis 140, Cry1Ac, Cry2Aa and endotoxin delta1 from B.t. kurstaki 4.0718 were further analyzed by bioinformatics analysis. Two common proteins were founded in three strains, the heat shock proteins (HSP60) and the translation elongation factor Tu, which help with protein refolding and prevent protein degradation. The different enzymes of metabolism, including glutamate racemase, chemotaxis protein histidine kinase and related kinases pyruvate dehydrogenase complex E1orE3 were identified. Some protein spots could not be identified. The results indicate that each Bt strain has unique ICPs as well as some common proteins related to ICPs formation, and that the virulence of Bt strains is closely related to the expression of specific ICPs.     

Quality control of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis products based on toxin quantification with monoclonal antibodies

Quality control of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis (Bti) products is currently based on international toxic units (ITUs). The potency of products is related to the activity of a standard (IPS-82, Institute Pasteur, Paris) assessed in bioassays using Aedes aegypti as a target host. The procedure is time consuming and costly, often producing variable results. The activity of Bti is based on four different insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs): Cry4Aa, Cry4Ba, Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa. Monoclonal antibodies were produced using IPS-82 for immunisation and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed. Antibodies were selected with specificity against Cry11A and Cyt1A. Cry4 specific antibodies could not distinguish between Cry4A and Cry4B. Within five replicate assessments of the three ICPs (in µg mg^-1 ICP protein), an error between 3 and 8% was recorded, whereas a 14% error was obtained comparing seven samples of the same production batch for ITUs mg^-1. The toxicity against A. aegypti expressed in ITUs correlated well with the results of the ELISA (correlation coefficient r Cyt 1=0.79; Cry 11=0.87; Cry 4=0.91) also when related to the sum of all ICPs (r=0.87). The ELISA can reduce efforts to determine Bti quality compared with the labour-intensive and variable ITU bioassay.     

Susceptibility of legume pod borer (LPB), Maruca vitrata to delta-endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in Taiwan

Baseline susceptibility of legume pod borer (LPB) to the insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) from Bacillus thuringiensis, viz, Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ca and Cry2Aa was assessed in Taiwan. Insect bioassays were performed by incorporating the Bt delta-endotoxins into the LPB artificial diet. The efficacy of different Bt delta-endotoxins against second instar larvae of LPB showed that the toxin Cry1Ab was the most potent toxin (LC(50) 0.207ppm), followed by Cry1Ca, Cry1Aa, Cry2Aa and Cry1Ac in descending order, with LC(50)s 0.477ppm, 0.812ppm, 1.058ppm and 1.666ppm, respectively. Hence, Cry1Ab and/or Cry1Ca toxins would provide effective control of early larval stages of LPB.     

Binding of Cyt1Aa and Cry11Aa toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis to brush border membrane vesicles of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera) and subsequent pore formation

Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis (B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis) produces four insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) (Cry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A, and Cyt1A). Toxicity of recombinant B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis strains expressing only one of the toxins was determined with first instars of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera). Cyt1A was the most toxic protein, whereas Cry4A, Cry4B, and Cry11A were virtually nontoxic. Synergistic effects were recorded when Cry4A and/or Cry4B was combined with Cyt1A but not with Cry11A. The binding and pore formation are key steps in the mode of action of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis ICPs. Binding and pore-forming activity of Cry11Aa, which is the most toxic protein against mosquitoes, and Cyt1Aa to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) of T. paludosa were analyzed. Solubilization of Cry11Aa resulted in two fragments, with apparent molecular masses of 32 and 36 kDa. No binding of the 36-kDa fragment to T. paludosa BBMVs was detected, whereas the 32-kDa fragment bound to T. paludosa BBMVs. Only a partial reduction of binding of this fragment was observed in competition experiments, indicating a low specificity of the binding. In contrast to results for mosquitoes, the Cyt1Aa protein bound specifically to the BBMVs of T. paludosa, suggesting an insecticidal mechanism based on a receptor-mediated action, as described for Cry proteins. Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa toxins were both able to produce pores in T. paludosa BBMVs. Protease treatment with trypsin and proteinase K, previously reported to activate Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa toxins, respectively, had the opposite effect. A higher efficiency in pore formation was observed when Cyt1A was proteinase K treated, while the activity of trypsin-treated Cry11Aa was reduced. Results on binding and pore formation are consistent with results on ICP toxicity and synergistic effect with Cyt1Aa in T. paludosa.     

苏云金杆菌4.0718菌株杀虫晶体蛋白的双向电泳飞行时间质谱分析

根据苏云金杆菌4.0718菌株杀虫晶体蛋白的特性,对裂解液组成、上样量、聚焦时间等相关技术进行了比较研究和条件优化,首次获得苏云金杆菌杀虫晶体蛋白双向电泳图谱,并对部分蛋白质点进行胰酶酶解,基质辅助激光解吸电离飞行时间质谱（matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry,MALDITOFMS）测定肽质量指纹图谱,Mascot软件查询SwissProt数据库,最终鉴定出苏云金杆菌4.0718菌株伴孢晶体中所含的Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白,其精确分子量分别为134160Da和71097Da。     

Binding of Cyt1Aa and Cry11Aa Toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis Serovar israelensis to Brush Border Membrane Vesicles of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera) and Subsequent Pore Formation

Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis (B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis) produces four insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) (Cry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A, and Cyt1A). Toxicity of recombinant B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis strains expressing only one of the toxins was determined with first instars of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Nematocera). Cyt1A was the most toxic protein, whereas Cry4A, Cry4B, and Cry11A were virtually nontoxic. Synergistic effects were recorded when Cry4A and/or Cry4B was combined with Cyt1A but not with Cry11A. The binding and pore formation are key steps in the mode of action of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis ICPs. Binding and pore-forming activity of Cry11Aa, which is the most toxic protein against mosquitoes, and Cyt1Aa to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) of T. paludosa were analyzed. Solubilization of Cry11Aa resulted in two fragments, with apparent molecular masses of 32 and 36 kDa. No binding of the 36-kDa fragment to T. paludosa BBMVs was detected, whereas the 32-kDa fragment bound to T. paludosa BBMVs. Only a partial reduction of binding of this fragment was observed in competition experiments, indicating a low specificity of the binding. In contrast to results for mosquitoes, the Cyt1Aa protein bound specifically to the BBMVs of T. paludosa, suggesting an insecticidal mechanism based on a receptor-mediated action, as described for Cry proteins. Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa toxins were both able to produce pores in T. paludosa BBMVs. Protease treatment with trypsin and proteinase K, previously reported to activate Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa toxins, respectively, had the opposite effect. A higher efficiency in pore formation was observed when Cyt1A was proteinase K treated, while the activity of trypsin-treated Cry11Aa was reduced. Results on binding and pore formation are consistent with results on ICP toxicity and synergistic effect with Cyt1Aa in T. paludosa.     

Susceptibility of Spodoptera exigua to 9 toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis

Nine of the most common lepidopteran active Cry proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis have been tested for activity against Spodoptera exigua. Because of possible intraspecific variability, three laboratory strains (FRA, HOL, and MUR) have been used. Mortality assays were performed with the three strains. LC₅₀ values for the active toxins were determined to the FRA and the HOL strains, whereas susceptibility of the MUR strain was assessed using only two concentrations. The results showed that Cry1Ca, Cry1Da, and Cry1Fa were the most effective toxins with all strains. Cry1Ab was found effective for the HOL strain, but very little effective against FRA (6.5-fold) and MUR strains. Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac were marginally toxic to all strains, whereas the rest of the toxins tested (Cry1Ba, Cry2Aa, and Cry2Ab) were non toxic. Significant differences in susceptibility among strains were also found for Cry1Da, being the FRA strain 25-fold more susceptible than the HOL strain. Growth inhibition, as an additional susceptibility parameter, was determined in the FRA strain with the 9 toxins. The toxicity profile obtained differed from that observed in mortality assays. Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ca, Cry1Da, and Cry1Fa toxins produced a similar larval growth inhibition. Cry2Aa had a lower but clear effect on larval growth inhibition, whereas Cry1Ba and Cry2Ab did not have any effect.     

Southern analysis of BT-R 1, the Manduca sexta gene encoding the receptor for the Cry1Ab toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis

Various subspecies of the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are known to produce a wide array of insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) upon sporulation. These ICPs act primarily on the brush border of midgut epithelial cells of susceptible larvae. Recently, a protein of 210?kDa, isolated from the midgut of Manduca sexta, has been demonstrated to bind the Cry1Ab toxin produced by B. thuringiensis subsp. berliner and is therefore postulated to be involved in mediating the toxicity of Cry1Ab. The cDNA encoding the 210?kDa protein, termed BT-R₁ (Bacillus thuringiensis receptor-1), was recently cloned, and shows limited homology to the cadherin superfamily of proteins. Quite naturally, there is a great deal of interest in the characterization of BT-R ₁ , the gene encoding the 210?kDa Cry1Ab binding protein. The studies presented here involve the use of various restriction fragments prepared from the cDNA encoding BT-R₁ as probes of Southern blots bearing M. sexta genomic DNA cleaved with a variety of restriction endonucleases. These Southern blot data reveal that there are two discrete regions within the M. sexta genome which encode sequences homologous to BT-R₁. On the basis of the signal intensities seen on Southern blots, it appears that only one of these genes encodes BT-R₁, whereas the other is a closely related homologue.     

Southern analysis of BT-R 1, the Manduca sexta gene encoding the receptor for the Cry1Ab toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis

Various subspecies of the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are known to produce a wide array of insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) upon sporulation. These ICPs act primarily on the brush border of midgut epithelial cells of susceptible larvae. Recently, a protein of 210 kDa, isolated from the midgut of Manduca sexta, has been demonstrated to bind the Cry1Ab toxin produced by B. thuringiensis subsp. berliner and is therefore postulated to be involved in mediating the toxicity of Cry1Ab. The cDNA encoding the 210 kDa protein, termed BT-R₁ (Bacillus thuringiensis receptor-1), was recently cloned, and shows limited homology to the cadherin superfamily of proteins. Quite naturally, there is a great deal of interest in the characterization of BT-R ₁ , the gene encoding the 210 kDa Cry1Ab binding protein. The studies presented here involve the use of various restriction fragments prepared from the cDNA encoding BT-R₁ as probes of Southern blots bearing M. sexta genomic DNA cleaved with a variety of restriction endonucleases. These Southern blot data reveal that there are two discrete regions within the M. sexta genome which encode sequences homologous to BT-R₁. On the basis of the signal intensities seen on Southern blots, it appears that only one of these genes encodes BT-R₁, whereas the other is a closely related homologue. Received: 27 March 1997 / Accepted: 30 June 1997     

Purification and characterization of aminopeptidase N from Spodoptera litura expressed in Sf21 insect cells

Insecticidal crystal proteins produced by strains of Bacillus thuringiensis cause larval death upon interaction with specific receptors located at the midgut epithelium of susceptible insects. Large quantities of easily purified aminopeptidase and cadherin-like Cry toxin receptors can facilitate the further study of Cry toxin binding and pore formation. Here, we report the solubilisation and purification of aminopeptidase N from Spodoptera litura (SlAPN). Recombinantly expressed and membrane anchored aminopeptidase N showed differential solubilisation with various ionic and nonionic detergents. The N-lauryl sarcosine (NLS)-solubilised SlAPN was purified to near homogeneity by anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography and refolded to its catalytically active form. The optimized purification regimen lead to >90% purification of the catalytically active SlAPN with 11% recovery and 9-folds purification. The interaction of purified SlAPN with biologically active Cry1C protein has been qualitatively and quantitatively characterized. By ligand blotting experiment, we demonstrated the linearity of interaction of the two purified proteins and lack of interaction of SlAPN with structurally divergent nontoxic Cry1Ac protein. The equilibrium dissociation constant (K(D)) of purified SlAPN for Cry1C was calculated by ELISA (90nM). Interaction of enzymatically inactive SlAPN with Cry1C and catalytic activity of APN-Cry1C complex suggested that the catalytic site and toxin-binding sites of SlAPN do not overlap.     

Toxicity of several delta-endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis against Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from Spain

Toxicity and larval growth inhibition of 11 insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis were evaluated against neonate larvae of Helicoverpa armigera, a major pest of important crops in Spain and other countries, by a whole-diet contamination method. The most active toxins were Cry1Ac4 and Cry2Aa1, with LC50 values of 3.5 and 6.3 microg/ml, respectively. At the concentrations tested, Cry1Ac4, Cry2Aa1, Cry9Ca, Cry1Fa1, Cry1Ab3, Cry2Ab2, Cry1Da, and Cry1Ja1, produced a significant growth inhibition, whereas Cry1Aa3, Cry1Ca2, and Cry1Ea had no effect.     

Toxicity and mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry proteins in the Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre)

Sesamia nonagrioides is one of the most damaging pests of corn in Spain and other Mediterranean countries. Bt corn expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin is being grown on about 58,000 ha in Spain. Here we studied the mode of action of this Cry protein on S. nonagrioides (binding to specific receptors, stability of binding, and pore formation) and the modes of action of other Cry proteins that were found to be active in this work (Cry1Ac, Cry1Ca, and Cry1Fa). Binding assays were performed with (125)I- or biotin-labeled toxins and larval brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV). Competition experiments indicated that these toxins bind specifically and that Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac share a binding site. Cry1Ca and Cry1Fa bind to different sites. In addition, Cry1Fa binds to Cry1A's binding site with very low affinity and vice versa. Binding of Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac was found to be stable over time, which indicates that the observed binding is irreversible. The pore-forming activity of Cry proteins on BBMV was determined using the voltage-sensitive fluorescent dye DiSC(3)(5). Membrane permeability increased in the presence of the active toxins Cry1Ab and Cry1Fa but not in the presence of the nonactive toxin Cry1Da. In terms of resistance management, based on our results and the fact that Cry1Ca is not toxic to Ostrinia nubilalis, we recommend pyramiding of Cry1Ab with Cry1Fa in the same Bt corn plant for better long-term control of corn borers.     

Activity of Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxins against codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) larvae

Solubilized protoxins of nine Cry1 and one hybrid Cry1 delta-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis were tested for their activity against larvae of the codling moth (Cydia pomonella L). Cry1Da was the most toxic, followed by Cry1Ab, Cry1Ba, and Cry1Ac, while Cry1Aa, Cry1Fa, Cry1Ia, and SN19 were still less active. Cry1Ca and Cry1Cb showed no activity. In vitro trypsin activation increased activity of all eight active delta-endotoxins, and dramatically enhanced toxicity of hybrid SN19, Cry1Aa, Cry1Ac, and Cry1Fa. The differences between toxicity of proteins before and after trypsin digestion suggests that proteolytic activation in the C. pomonella digestive tract plays a critical role for the activity of Cry proteins against this insect.     

Characterization of Cry34/Cry35 binary insecticidal proteins from diverse Bacillus thuringiensis strain collections

Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins of the Cry34 and Cry35 classes function as binary toxins showing activity on the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. We surveyed 6,499 B. thuringiensis isolates by hybridization for sequences related to cry35A genes, identifying 78 strains. Proteins of the appropriate molecular mass (ca. 44 kDa) for Cry35 were observed in 42 of the strains. Full-length, or nearly full-length, sequences of 34 cry34 genes and 16 cry35 genes were also obtained from cloning, PCR analysis, and DNA sequencing. These included representatives of all known Cry34A, Cry34B, Cry35A, and Cry35B classes, as well as a novel Cry34A/Cry35A-like pair. Bioassay analysis indicated that cry35-hybridizing strains not producing a ca. 14-kDa protein, indicative of Cry34, were not active on corn rootworms, and that the previously identified Cry34A/Cry35A pairs were more active than the Cry34B/Cry35B pairs. The cry35-hybridizing B. thuringiensis strains were found in locales and materials typical for other B. thuringiensis strains. Comparison of the sequences with the geographic origins of the strains showed that identical, or nearly identical, sequences were found in strains from both Australasia and the Americas. Sequence similarity searches revealed that Cry34 proteins are similar to predicted proteins in Photorhabdus luminescens and Dictyostelium discoidium, and that Cry35Ab1 contains a segment similar to beta-trefoil domains that may be a binding motif. The binary Cry34/Cry35 B. thuringiensis crystal proteins thus appear closely related to each other, are environmentally ubiquitous, and share sequence similarities consistent with activity through membrane disruption in target organisms.     

苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P20对杀虫晶体蛋白CrylAb表达的影响

苏云金杆菌 (Bacillusthuringiensis,简称Bt)杀虫晶体蛋白Cry1Ab因其C 半端缺少了一段含 4个半胱氨酸的氨基酸序列而导致蛋白的不稳定 ,报道苏云金杆菌辅助蛋白P2 0帮助Cry1Ab蛋白的表达及晶体的形成。利用穿梭载体pHT310 1构建 3个表达质粒 ,即pT1B、pP1B和pDP1B ,3个质粒都含有cry1Ab基因 ,不同在于pT1B没有p2 0基因 ,pP1B含有p2 0全基因 ,而pDP1B不仅含有p2 0全基因 ,且在p2 0基因前插入cry1A(c)启动子。分别将这 3个表达质粒经电转化到苏云金杆菌晶体缺陷型菌株CryB中 ,获得转化菌株T1B、P1B和DP1B。Westernblot表明cry1Ab基因在这 3株菌中均表达了 130kD的蛋白 ,部分降解为大约 6 0kD的蛋白。蛋白定量分析显示 ,3株菌 130kD蛋白量的比为 1∶1.4∶1 5 ,降解后的 6 0kD蛋白量的比为 1∶1.1∶1.6 ,Cry1Ab蛋白总量的比为 1∶1∶2∶1 6。镜检发现 ,Cry1Ab在 3株菌中都形成典型的菱形晶体 ,其晶体大小为T1B 相似文献   

Potential of the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin reservoir for the control of Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a major pest of grape plants

The potential of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry proteins to control the grape pest Lobesia botrana was explored by testing first-instar larvae with Cry proteins belonging to the Cry1, Cry2, and Cry9 groups selected for their documented activities against Lepidoptera. Cry9Ca, a toxin from B. thuringiensis, was the protein most toxic to L. botrana larvae, followed in decreasing order by Cry2Ab, Cry1Ab, Cry2Aa, and Cry1Ia7, with 50% lethal concentration values of 0.09, 0.1, 1.4, 3.2, and 8.5 microg/ml of diet, respectively. In contrast, Cry1Fa and Cry1JA were not active at the assayed concentration (100 microg/ml). In vitro binding and competition experiments showed that none of the toxins tested (Cry1Ia, Cry2Aa, Cry2Ab, and Cry9C) shared binding sites with Cry1Ab. We conclude that either Cry1Ia or Cry9C could be used in combination with Cry1Ab to control this pest, either as the active components of B. thuringiensis sprays or expressed together in transgenic plants.     

Leucine Transport Is Affected by Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1 Toxins in Brush Border Membrane Vesicles from Ostrinia nubilalis Hb (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Sesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Midgut

The pore-forming activity of Cry1Ab, Cry1Fa and Cry1Ca toxins and their interaction with leucine transport mediated by the K⁺/leucine cotransporter were studied in brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) isolated from the midgut of Ostrinia nubilalis and Sesamia nonagrioides. In both species, as in other Lepidoptera, leucine uptake by BBMVs can take place in the absence of cations, but it can also be driven by a K⁺ gradient. Experiments with the voltage-sensitive fluorescent dye 3,3′-diethylthiacarbocyanine iodide proved that Cry1Ab, a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin active in vivo, enhanced the membrane permeability to potassium in O. nubilalis BBMVs. This result is in agreement with similar effects observed in S. nonagrioides BBMV incubated with various Cry1 toxins active in vivo. The effect of the above toxins was tested on the initial rate of 0.1 mM leucine influx. Instead of an increase in leucine influx, a reduction was observed with the Cry1 toxins active in vivo. Cry1Ab and Cry1Fa, but not the inactive toxin Cry1Da, inhibited in a dose-dependent manner leucine uptake both in the absence and in the presence of a K⁺ gradient, a clear indication that their effect is independent of the channel formed by the toxins and that this effect is exerted directly on the amino acid transport system.     

A system for the directed evolution of the insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis

Theoretically, the activity of AB-type toxin molecules such as the insecticidal toxin (Cry toxin) from B. thuringiensis, which have one active site and two binding site, is improved in parallel with the binding affinity to its receptor. In this experiment, we tried to devise a method for the directed evolution of Cry toxins to increase the binding affinity to the insect receptor. Using a commercial T7 phage-display system, we expressed Cry1Aa toxin on the phage surface as fusions with the capsid protein 10B. These recombinant phages bound to a cadherin-like protein that is one of the Cry1Aa toxin receptors in the model target insect Bombyx mori. The apparent affinity of Cry1Aa-expressing phage for the receptor was higher than that of Cry1Ab-expressing phage. Phages expressing Cry1Aa were isolated from a mixed suspension of phages expressing Cry1Ab and concentrated by up to 130,000-fold. Finally, random mutations were made in amino acid residues 369–375 in domain 2 of Cry1Aa toxin, the mutant toxins were expressed on phages, and the resulting phage library was screened with cadherin-like protein-coated beads. As a result, phages expressing abnormal or low-affinity mutant toxins were excluded, and phages with high-affinity mutant toxins were selected. These results indicate that a method combining T7 phage display with selection using cadherin-like protein-coated magnetic beads can be used to increase the activity of easily obtained, low-activity Cry toxins from bacteria.     

Three toxins,two receptors,one mechanism: Mode of action of Cry1A toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis in Heliothis virescens

Insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are highly active against Lepidoptera. However, field-evolved resistance to Bt toxins is on the rise. The 12-cadherin domain protein HevCaLP and the ABC transporter HevABCC2 are both genetically linked to Cry toxin resistance in Heliothis virescens. We investigated their interaction using stably expressing non-lytic clonal Sf9 cell lines expressing either protein or both together. Untransfected Sf9 cells are innately sensitive to Cry1Ca toxin, but not to Cry1A toxins; and quantitative PCR revealed negligible expression of genes involved in Cry1A toxicity such as cadherin, ABCC2, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aminopeptidase N (APN). Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab or Cry1Ac caused swelling of Sf9 cells expressing HevABCC2, and caused faster swelling, lysis and up to 86% mortality in cells expressing both proteins. No such effect was observed in control Sf9 cells or in cells expressing only HevCaLP. The results of a mixing experiment demonstrated that both proteins need to be expressed within the same cell for high cytotoxicity, and suggest a novel role for HevCaLP. Binding assays showed that the toxin-receptor interaction is specific. Our findings confirm that HevABCC2 is the central target in Cry1A toxin mode of action, and that HevCaLP plays a supporting role in increasing Cry1A toxicity.