Two new“Meganthropus” mandibles from Java

There are now eleven known mandibular pieces from the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Java, all but one being from the Sangiran site. All of these have been assigned toHomo erectus by most authorities, while others have suggested as many as four different hominoid taxa. Two of the mandibles, Sangiran 33 (Mandible H) and“Meganthropus”D (no Sangiran number yet assigned), are described here for the first time. The two new mandibles come from the Upper Pucangan Formation and date approximately 1.2–1.4 Myr. They are morphologically compatible with other“Meganthropus” mandibles described from Java. Despite attempts by numerous authorities to place all the Sangiran hominid mandibles in the species,H. erectus, the range of variation in metric and nonmetric features of the“Meganthropus” hominids is clearly beyond the know variation found inH. erectus. “Meganthropus” could represent a speciation from the well-knownH. erectus.     

Archaeozoological records and distribution history of the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in Central Europe

A review of the Holocene records of the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in Central Europe indicates an immigration around 10,000 years BP at the latest. During the middle Holocene—9,000–5,000 years BP—the species seems to have been common in the south-western Baltic region and perhaps also in Switzerland, but scarce in the rest of Central Europe. After a complete lack of osprey remains for nearly 4,000 years up to medieval times, a few records again suggest a sporadic distribution of this species in the south-western Baltic. In early modern times, the osprey recolonised north-eastern Germany and, during the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century, bred in colony-like densities. Because of relentless persecution and, later, contamination with pesticides, osprey populations collapsed. Recently, the Central European populations have been slowly increasing again. The significance of the subfossil findings is discussed and possible reasons for their scarcity are outlined.     

Size- and locomotion-related aspects of hominid and anthropoid pelves: An osteometrical multivariate analysis

Two multivariate methods — the logarithmic principal component analysis (LPCA), and the logarithmic factorial analysis (LFA) — have been used tocompare the hip bone proportions of hominoids biometrically. The results have shown that size effects among apes and hominids interact to a centain extent with locomotor specializations, which are related to the attainment of more or less terrestrial behaviors. The pelvic morphology of great apes (Pongo, Pan, Gorilla) has retained numerous morphological traits — such as a gracile and elongated hip bone —, which were inherited from common adaptations to arboreal locomotion. In spite of these common traits, the African pongids (Pan, Gorilla) present two very different pelvic morphologies corresponding to two adaptative modes of terrestrial quadrupedalism. The hip bone of humans is proportionnally short and robust, most particularly at the level of its axial part. These characteristics, as well as the whole pelvic proportions, clearly indicate that gravitational forces exert a strong pressure on the pelvic walls during bipedalism. Among hominids, the transition from an australopithecine-like pelvic pattern to a human-like one corresponds to an increase of loading constraints on the hip jiont. This seems to indicate an evident change in locomotor behavior. Progression apparently became exclusively terrestrial with the genusHomo.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hieracium</Emphasis> subgen. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pilosella</Emphasis>: pollen stainability in sexual,apomictic and sterile plants

Two pollen stainability tests (Alexander’s stain and acetocarmine) were used to detect differences in pollen viability of the sexual, apomictic and sterile plants of Hieracium subgen. Pilosella. In sexual taxa (Hieracium bauhini and H. densiflorum), the average stainability was 93.7–98.4%. Similarly high stainability (92.2–97.2%) was found in the apomictic Hieracium pilosellinum and in the majority of the apomictic populations (or plants) of the pentaploid and hexaploid H. bauhini. In some apomictic plants of Hieracium bauhini the average pollen stainability was 49.0–75.4%. The lowest pollen stainability was found in the sterile plants, i.e. the triploid H. pistoriense (33.6%) and the pentaploid H. brachiatum (29.6%).     

The occurrence and identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Setaria italica</Emphasis> (L.) P. Beauv. (foxtail millet) grains from the Chengtoushan site (ca. 5800 cal B.P.) in central China,with reference to the domestication centre in Asia

Archaeobotanical remains of Setaria grains and chaff were found at the Chengtoushan site in south-central China (ca. 5800 cal b.p.). Grain shape was determined, using length to breadth ratios, and morphological variation in the upper lemma of modern domesticated and wild Setaria species were examined using scanning electron microscopy as a basis for identifying archaeobotanical remains. Grains of S. viridis, S. yunnanensis, and S.×pycnocoma are slender, whereas S. italica, S. italica var. germinica, S. lutescenes, S. faberi, S. glauca, S. pallidefusca and S. intermedia are round in shape. The papillae distributed on the upper lemma of S. italica are small (8–15 μm) with a non-ridged base, while other Setaria species have large papillae (15–20 μm) with a widely ridged base. The remains of the Setaria from the Neolithic layers at Chengtoushan included S. italica, based on these identification characters. These new finds of foxtail millet are the earliest discoveries from the Yangtze River basin of southern China and are also the earliest evidence for co-cultivation of foxtail millet with rice. The implications of these findings for understanding foxtail millet domestication centres are discussed.     

Stoneworts (Characeae) and associated macrophyte species as indicators of water quality and human activities in the Pays-de-la-Loire region, France

Two ecologically and morphologically distinct forms of Furcellaria lumbricalis and loose form of Coccotylus truncatus were experimentally tested to obtain information on the growth rates and influence of the habitat depth on their eco-physiological activity. Incubations were carried out in the area inhabited by a loose F. lumbricalis–C. truncatus community in Kassari Bay of the West-Estonian Archipelago Sea, the NE Baltic Sea. During the incubation period (20.04–21.10.2002) loose forms of F. lumbricalis and C. truncatus showed similar dynamics of both growth rate of biomass and primary production while attached form of F.␣lumbricalis had, as a rule, significantly lower growth rate and primary production values. The highest eco-physiological activity was recorded from the shallowest incubation depth (4 m) for all three algal forms. All three tested algal forms had similar pattern of growth during the incubation period – highest growth rates were detected in spring and early summer while during the rest of the incubation period algal biomass was in a steady state when production balanced degradation processes.     

Pollen as an alternative food for Harmonia axyridis

The current study examines the potential of the multicoloured Asian lady beetle Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to use pollen as a food to sustain development and reproduction in the absence of insect prey. Three populations of H. axyridis were used in this study: a long-term laboratory population (since 1998) and a melanic and non-melanic population originating from field collected individuals in Belgium. The insects were allowed to develop and reproduce on frozen eggs of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae), frozen moist bee pollen or an even mixture of the two. Females of the field population offered the mixed diet initiated oviposition sooner than those fed only E. kuehniella eggs, but other developmental and reproductive traits were similar on these diets. A diet of pollen alone allowed 35–48% of the larvae of the field population of H. axyridis to successfully reach adulthood. However, developmental time for these individuals was prolonged by 31–49% and adult body weight was reduced by 37–68%, compared to individuals offered the diets containing E. kuehniella eggs. When fed exclusively on pollen in their larval and adult life, about 40% of the adult females of either field population were able to produce a small number of viable eggs. The laboratory and field strains differed in their response to diet for a number of developmental and reproductive traits. The exploitation of pollen and other plant foods at times when insect prey is scarce, may offer a further competitive advantage to the non-indigenous coccinellid H. axyridis over native European predatory lady beetles that share the same niche and are less capable of using pollen as an alternative food.     

Differences in growth,size and sexual dimorphism in skulls of East Greenland and Svalbard polar bears (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ursus maritimus</Emphasis>)

Size, growth and sexual dimorphism of nine skull traits was studied in 300 East Greenland and 391 Svalbard polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Two traits were significantly larger in bears from East Greenland compared to Svalbard bears, and trait size was smaller after 1960 in five traits. For both localities and both age groups (subadult, adult), mean trait size values were higher in males than females (all: P < 0.05). Gompertz growth models showed trait size increasing with age in seven traits. Depending on the trait, males reached 95% asymptotic trait size at age 3–10, females at age 2–6. The females of both localities matured at approximately the same age, whereas the Svalbard males generally matured years later than their East Greenland peers. The differences found in the present study between the two polar bear subpopulations support the notion that East Greenland and Svalbard polar bears probably should be managed as separate units.     

Using extant patterns of dental variation to identify species in the primate fossil record: a case study of middle Eocene <Emphasis Type="Italic">Omomys</Emphasis> from the Bridger Basin,southwestern Wyoming

Patterns of extant primate dental variation provide important data for interpreting taxonomic boundaries in fossil forms. Here I use dental data from several well-known living primates (as well as data from selected Eocene forms) to evaluate dental variation in Middle Eocene Omomys, the first North American fossil primate identified by paleontologists. Measurements were collected from a sample of 148 omomyid dental specimens recovered from Bridger B localities in the Bridger Basin, Wyoming. Most of these specimens have not previously been described. Nonmetric traits were also scored for this sample. Lower molar coefficients of variation range from 4.01 for M₂ length (n = 80) to 6.73 for M₃ talonid width (n = 57). All of the nonmetric traits scored exhibit less than 100% presence in the overall sample, including traits previously described as representative of Omomys (e.g., P₄ metaconids present in 91%, n = 55; M² pericones present in 80%, n = 15). Dental traits also vary in a set of spatially restricted localities from the same fossil horizon and in a separate, single fossil locality (DMNH 868, P₄ metaconids present in 67%, n = 6). An increasing frequency in several premolar traits across time in these more restricted samples suggests an anagenetic change in Bridger B Omomys. However, this degree of morphological variability is consistent with that seen in extant primate species from single locations. Metric variation in this sample is comparable to that seen in other Eocene primates, such as new data presented here for the omomyid Arapahovius gazini from the Washakie Basin, southern Wyoming. Omomys metric variation is also comparable to that found in several samples of well-known extant primates from single localities (e.g., ring-tailed lemurs and gray–brown mouse lemurs). These metric data also correspond to the patterns of variability described in previously published studies of Omomys carteri. In sum, a single species interpretation (O. carteri) for this new Bridger B Omomys sample from southern Wyoming is affirmed, and this study illustrates the usefulness of dental data from extant primates for evaluating primate fossil samples.     

Insectivory and its significance to langur diets

Earlier studies on Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) around Jodhpur found them entirely vegetarian (Mohnot, 1974;Winkler, 1988). However, recent observations in the open scrub forests of Jodhpur reveal that scale insects may constitute a regular part of their diet and that insectivory is particularly prevalent in the monsoon months July – September. The insect eating in this habitat seems to support the “Energy/nutrient maximization” hypothesis ofHamilton andBusse (1978).     

Chimeric gene construct coding for bi-functional enzyme endowed with endoglucanase and phytase activities

Phytase and endoglucanase enzymes are being widely used as feed additives in poultry industry. In our earlier studies, the Bacillus phytase, when expressed in Escherichia coli, was found in inclusion bodies, whereas endoglucanase was found in active soluble form. Herein, we report the development of a chimeric gene construct coding for ~73 kDa fusion protein and its over-expression in E. coli in soluble form. The novel enzyme exhibited both endoglucanase and phytase activities across broad pH (4.0–8.0) and temperature (25–75°C) ranges. As such, the bi-functional enzyme seems promising and might serve as a potential feed additive for enhanced nutrition uptake in monogastric animals.     

Limited genetic variation and structure in softshell clams (Mya arenaria) across their native and introduced range

To offset declines in commercial landings of the softshell clam, Mya arenaria, resource managers are engaged in extensive stocking of seed clams throughout its range in the northwest Atlantic. Because a mixture of native and introduced stocks can disrupt locally adapted genotypes, we investigated genetic structure in M. arenaria populations across its current distribution to test for patterns of regional differentiation. We sequenced mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I for a total of 212 individuals from 12 sites in the northwest Atlantic (NW Atlantic), as well as two introduced sites, the northeast Pacific (NE Pacific), and the North Sea Europe (NS Europe). Populations exhibited extremely low genetic variation, with one haplotype dominating (65–100%) at all sites sampled. Despite being introduced in the last 150–400 years, both NE Pacific and NS Europe populations had higher diversity measures than those in the NW Atlantic and both contained private haplotypes at frequencies of 10–27% consistent with their geographic isolation. While significant genetic structure (F _ST = 0.159, P < 0.001) was observed between NW Atlantic and NS Europe, there was no evidence for genetic structure across the pronounced environmental clines of the NW Atlantic. Reduced genetic diversity in mtDNA combined with previous studies reporting reduced genetic diversity in nuclear markers strongly suggests a recent population expansion in the NW Atlantic, a pattern that may result from the retreat of ice sheets during Pleistocene glacial periods. Lack of genetic diversity and regional genetic differentiation suggests that present management strategies for the commercially important softshell clam are unlikely to have a significant impact on the regional distribution of genetic variation, although the possibility of disrupting locally adapted stocks cannot be excluded.     

Fruits foraging patterns and seed dispersal effect of frugivorous birds on Hippophae rhamnoides sinensis

Behaviors of 18 species of birds eating fruits of Hippophae rhamnoides spp. sinensis were observed from September 2003 to March 2004. Their foraging patterns were found to be very different and can be divided into five classes: (1) direct swallowing the fruits on crown of the shrubs and sometimes regurgitating seeds soon after; (2) carrying the fruits to their perching sites and swallowing; (3) pecking the fruits from the shrubs to the ground, eating pulp and seeds but leaving pericarp; (4) pecking through the pericarp, eating pulp and leaving pericarp and seeds; (5) pecking through the pericarp on the top of fruits, and only eating seeds. These foraging patterns have different effects on seed dispersal of H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis. The germination experiment of three groups of seeds (seeds from feces, dry fruits and extracted seeds from dry fruits) was carried out. Although ingestion processes of birds had some adverse effects on the seed germination of H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis, the seeds from feces still have a relatively higher germination ratio. H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis provides food to a variety of frugivorous birds, and the birds disperse its seeds. Thus, a mutually beneficial relationship between the bird and the seed is formed. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2005, 24(6): 635–638 [译自: 生态学杂志, 2005, 24(6): 635–638]     

Variation of acharan sulfate and monosaccharide composition and analysis of neutral <Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-glycans in African giant snail (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Achatina fulica</Emphasis>)

Acharan sulfate content from African giant snail (Achatina fulica) was compared in eggs and snails of different ages. Acharan sulfate was not found in egg. Acharan sulfate disaccharide →4)-α-d-GlcNpAc (1→4)-α-l-IdoAp2S(1→, analyzed by SAX (strong-anion exchange)–HPLC was observed soon after hatching and increases as the snails grow. Monosaccharide compositional analysis showed that mole % of glucosamine, a major monosaccharide of acharan sulfate, increased with age while mole % of galactose decreased with age. These results suggest that galactans represent a major energy source during development, while acharan sulfate appearing immediately after hatching, is essential for the snail growth. The structures of neutral N-glycans released from eggs by peptide N-glycosidase F (PNGase F), were next elucidated using ESI-MS/MS, MALDI-MS/MS, enzyme digestion, and monosaccharide composition analysis. Three types of neutral N-glycan structures were observed, truncated (Hex_2–4-HexNAc₂), high mannose (Hex_5–9-HexNAc₂), and complex (Hex₃-HexNAc_2–10) types. None showed core fucosylation.     

Search Efficiency of Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor on Musca domestica Pupae in Dairy Cattle Farms in Denmark

Indoor releases of Spalangia cameroni Perkins and Muscidifurax raptor Girauelt & Sanders (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) were conducted in five organic dairy cattle farms to evaluate the overall effect on parasitism and efficiency at different pupal depths of Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). Overall, parasitism increased significantly from 5.3 to 28.8–28.7% of the exposed house fly pupae due to the release of pupal parasitoids. Spalangia cameroni was by far the most dominant species, contributing approximately 71.5–72.3% of the parasitism in the release and post-release period, whereas 20.9–24.4% could be attributed to Muscidifurax raptor. A naturally occurring ichneumonid, Phygadeuon fumator Gravenhorst (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) parasitized 4.1–6.8% of the exposed fly pupae. The placement of house fly pupae at two depths of the bedding, 5–10 and 15–20 cm had no significant effect on overall parasitism whereas M. raptor attacked the house fly pupae significantly more when placed in the 5–10 cm stratum (10.0%) compared to the 15–20 cm stratum (3.2%). The two pupal depths had no significant effect on parasitism by S. cameroni and P. fumator. Albeit S. cameroni contributed significantly to overall parasitism, M. raptor had a significantly higher attack rate when first a female had located bags with sentinel pupae. Based on the above results, however, S. cameroni seems the most appropriate species for managing house flies in straw bedded dairy cattle farms in Denmark. A biological control strategy of simultaneous releases of S. cameroni and M. raptor is discussed.     

T’ef (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eragrostis tef</Emphasis>) in Ancient Agricultural Systems of Highland Ethiopia

T’ef ( Eragrostis tef ) in Ancient Agricultural Systems of Highland Ethiopia. T’ef (Eragrostis tef) has been cultivated in the Horn of Africa for at least 2,000 years. The earliest known agricultural systems in this region date to the Pre-Aksumite period (800–400 b.c.) and appear to have focused on Near Eastern crops, with indigenous African species increasing in importance during Aksumite times (400 b.c.–a.d. 700). While palaeoethnobotanical data are available from Pre-Aksumite and late Aksumite periods, macroscopic botanical remains from the site of Ona Nagast, northern Ethiopia, provide a first glimpse of agricultural systems dating to Proto-Aksumite (400–50 b.c.), Early to Classic (50 b.c.–a.d. 340), and Post-Aksumite (a.d. 700–900) times. Archaeological t’ef remains from Ona Nagast are examined in detail. Guidelines are developed for the identification of t’ef grains preserved on archaeological sites, with a focus on how to differentiate them from seeds of wild Eragrostis species. Charring experiments reveal that in some cases t’ef may not survive high temperatures tolerated by larger cereal grains, such as wheat and barley. The domestication history of t’ef appears to be different from some other cereals, a factor which may explain the preponderance of indeterminate Eragrostis seeds in archaeological samples. Selection of large seed size and intensified tillage were not key factors in t’ef domestication. Early cultivators were likely selecting for increased branching and higher percentage seed set under conditions of minimal tillage.     

Life-history traits and potential invasiveness of introduced pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus populations in northwestern Europe

To evaluate the potential invasiveness of pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus introduced to northwestern European inland waters, growth and reproduction traits were examined in ten populations along a trajectory spanning northwestern Europe (Norway, England, Holland, Belgium and France) and evaluated in light of published dataset from Europe. In the 848 pumpkinseed captured, maximum age was 3–4 years, with a sex ratio near unity in all but one population. Significant variations with increasing latitude were observed in adult growth (age 2–3 increment in total length, TL) and mean age at maturity (A _M), with non-significant variations observed in juvenile growth (TL at age 2), sex ratio and gonado-somatic index. As observed elsewhere in Europe, mean A _M decreased significantly with increasing TL at age 2. Using this relationship, which has been proposed elsewhere as a potential predictive model of pumpkinseed invasiveness, eight of the ten populations could be provisionally categorized as ‘non-invasive’ (five populations), ‘transitional’ (one population) and ‘potentially invasive’ (two populations), with two populations not categorized due to insufficient data. Based on the available knowledge on each population, the relationship between juvenile growth and age at maturity appeared to predict reasonably the status of pumpkinseed in northwestern Europe and its applicability to other species should be tested.     

Stocking may increase mitochondrial DNA diversity but fails to halt the decline of endangered Atlantic salmon populations

Over the last 50 years, Spanish Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations have been in decline. In order to bolster these populations, rivers were stocked with fish of northern European origin during the period 1974–1996, probably also introducing the furunculosis-inducing pathogen, Aeromonas salmonicida. Here we assess the relative importance of processes influencing mitochondrial (mt)DNA variability in these populations from 1948 to 2002. Genetic material collected over this period from four rivers in northern Spain (Cantabria) was used to detect variability at the mtDNA ND1 gene. Before stocking, a single haplotype was found at high frequency (0.980). Following stocking, haplotype diversity (h) increased in all rivers (mean h before stocking was 0.041, and 0.245 afterwards). These increases were due principally to the dramatic increase in frequency of a previously very low frequency haplotype, reported at higher frequencies in northern European populations proximate to those used to stock Cantabrian rivers. Genetic structuring increased after stocking: among-river differentiation was low before stocking (1950s/1960s Φ _ST = –0.00296–0.00284), increasing considerably at the height of stocking (1980s Φ _ST = 0.18932) and decreasing post-stocking (1990s/2002 Φ _ST = 0.04934–0.03852). Gene flow from stocked fish therefore seems to have had a substantial role in increasing mtDNA variability. Additionally, we found significant differentiation between individuals that had probably died from infectious disease and apparently healthy, angled fish, suggesting a possible role for pathogen-driven selection of mtDNA variation. Our results suggest that stocking with non-native fish may increase genetic diversity in the short term, but may not reverse population declines.     

Iberia: bridge or cul-de-sac? implications of the Iberian record for the debate on the middle to upper palaeolithic transition

Recent discoveries and dating of materials from Spain and Portugal for the period between c. 40–30 kya highlight the fact that the Iberian Peninsula is a microcosm of the complex mosaic of conditions that characterized the middle to upper palaeolithic and Neanderthal to Cro-Magnon transitions. They would tend to suggest that the replacement of one way of life by another was suggest that the replacement of one way of life by another was far from rapid, abrupt or simple, and they call into question the “out of Africa” invasionist scenario. Although Iberia seems to have been a “bridge” between Africa and the rest of Europe during certain times (notably at the time of the first colonization(s) of Europe, perhaps in the late Lower Pleistocene, as suggested by the discoveries at Atapuerca), at other times it seems to have been cut off from Africa. Despite the presence of Aurignacian technology in Cantabria and Catalonia since 40 kya, the continued persistence of Neanderthals and of Mousterian technology for over 10 ky in southern Iberia would seem to belie the superiority and African origin of upper palaeolithic Cro-Magnon. Furthermore, even in northern Spain, where the taxonomic identity of the makers of the early Aurignacian remains unknown, the nature of the technological transition was variable: abrupt in Catalonia and gradual in Cantabria. Added to the rest of the record, which includes Neanderthals apparently making Chatelperronian tools in France, Szeletian tools in Hungary and later Aurignacian tools in Croatia, a complete lack of any fossils in definite association with early Aurignacian anywhere, evidence of subsistence and technological change during the Mousterian in certain regions of Europe, scant evidence for cultural differentiation between Neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans (Skhul & Qafzeh) in Israel, growing (albeit limited) evidence for middle palaeolithic artistic or ornamental activity, and evidence for considerable, on-going change in technology and subsistence during the upper palaeolithic, the Iberian record strongly argues for a long, uneven transition from middle to upper palaeolithic lifeways- not a simple, abrupt invasion of Europe out of Africa.