Role of water transport in origin of water stress

Intensity of transpiration, intensity of water absorption, water saturation deficit (w.s.d.) in different parts of samples and rate of water transport was investigated in samples from leaf tissue of fodder cabbage and banana-tree. In all experiments (at initial w.s.d. 0% and 20%, in samples from upper, middle and lower leaves of fodder cabbage and from leaves of banana-tree) a distinct gradient of w.s.d. in the direction of transport of water was determined, therefore the limiting factor in the water balance was rate of water transport and not rate of water absorption. The lowest amount of water was always transported within transpiring part of sample. When the initial w.s.d. was 0% not only the water transported by tissue from the environment, but also the water of the leaf tissue itself took part in water lost by transpiration and therefore water stress originated in the whole sample. At an initial w.s.d. of 20%, the rate of water absorption was higher than the rate of water transport and therefore the increase of w.s.d. in the transpiring part of the sample was accompanied by a simultaneous decrease of w.s.d. in the transporting part. An increase in the value of w.s.d. in leaf tissue proportionally increased the resistance of water transport in the liquid phase (on the average from 1·7 . 10³ to 6·7 . 10³ atm min cm² g^?1) and also in the gaseous phase (on the average from 2·7 . 10^?2 to 14·0 . 10^?2 min cm^?1). It was proved that insufficient rate of water transport can be responsible for the origin of water stress. At the same time the rate of water transport was influenced by the value of the w.s.d. since every change of w.s.d. in leaf tissue not only the gradient of water potential changed but also the resistance to water transport.     

The relationship between the resistance to water transport and the water saturation deficit in leaf tissue of kale and tobacco

Positive linear correlation between the resistance to water transport in liquid phase and water saturation deficit (w.s.d.) in the tissue ofBrassica oleracea andNicotiana tabacum leaves was observed. At the same values of w.s.d. corresponding values of the resistance to water transport were higher when dehydration of the leaf tissue occurred during the experiment and lower when water balance was in equilibrium or resaturation of the leaf tissue occurred.     

Water balance in leaf tissue

Samples of the leaf tissue (14cm²) were placed in a plexiglass chamber which consisted of three parts. Water absorbed by the leaf tissue on one side of the sample was transported through the middle part of the sample to the opposite side and was transpirated there. The intensity of transpiration the intensity of water absorption and water saturation deficit (w.s.d.) were determined simultaneously in this tissue by gravimetry. Water balance was studied either in saturated samples of leaf tissue or in tissue where w.s.d. (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%) was established in advance. Although conditions for water absorption in leaf segments were optimal, w.s.d. originated in the saturated leaf tissue under all given external conditions (evaporation from 41.7 to 17.8 mg cm^?2 h^?1). W.s.d. which was established in advance for the most part increased during the experiment and reached even high values (more than 60%). the equilibration was reached only under conditions of low evaporation and initial w.s.d. higher than 20% in young leaves and higher than 30% in adult leaves. A positive correlation between the ratio of the intensity of water absorption to the intensity of transpiration and w.s.d. was found only under conditions of lower evaporation (17.8 and 23.2mg cm^?2h^?1). The maximal values of w.s.d. were limited in this way. Water balance was studied: 1. in leaf tissue of upper, middle and lower leaves of fodder cabbage, 2. in leaf tissue of middle leaves of young and adult plants of fodder cabbage, 3. in leaf tissue of dicots (fodder cabbage) with different vessel orientation in respect to water transport, 4. in leaf tissue of monocots (banana-tree) with water transport upright to the vessel orientation. Considerable change of water balance was observed when the water transport was prolonged by two incisions in the middle part of the sample. Results of all these experiments revealed the possibility of water stress origin even in leaf tissue sufficiently supplied with water.     

Effects of water stress and rewatering on leaf water relations of lemon plants

Potted two-year-old lemon plants (Citrus limon (L.) Burm. fil.) cv. Fino, growing under field conditions were subjected to drought by withholding irrigation for 13 d. After that, plants were re-irrigated and the recovery was studied for 5 d. Control plants were daily irrigated maintaining the soil matric potential at about -30 kPa. Young leaves of control plants presented higher leaf conductance (g1) and lower midday leaf water potential (Ψmd) than mature ones. Young leaves also showed higher leaf water potential at the turgor loss point (Ψtlp) than mature leaves. In both leaf types g1 decreased with increased vapour pressure deficit of the atmosphere. From day 1 of the withholding water, predawn and midday leaf water potentials (Ψpd and Ψmd) decreased, reaching in both cases minimum values of -5.5 MPa, with no significant differences between mature and young leaves. Water stress induced stomatal closure, leaf rolling and partial defoliation. No osmotic adjustment was found in response to water stress in either leaf type, but both were able to enhance the cell wall elasticity (elastic adjustment). After rewatering, leaf water potential recovered quickly (within 2 d) but g1 did not. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Errors in measuring water potentials of small samples resulting from water adsorption by thermocouple psychrometer chambers

The adsorption of water by thermocouple psychrometer assemblies is known to cause errors in the determination of water potential. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of sample size and psychrometer chamber volume on measured water potentials of leaf discs, leaf segments, and sodium chloride solutions. Reasonable agreement was found between soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) leaf water potentials measured on 5-millimeter radius leaf discs and large leaf segments. Results indicated that while errors due to adsorption may be significant when using small volumes of tissue, if sufficient tissue is used the errors are negligible. Because of the relationship between water potential and volume in plant tissue, the errors due to adsorption were larger with turgid tissue. Large psychrometers which were sealed into the sample chamber with latex tubing appeared to adsorb more water than those sealed with flexible plastic tubing. Estimates are provided of the amounts of water adsorbed by two different psychrometer assemblies and the amount of tissue sufficient for accurate measurements of leaf water potential with these assemblies. It is also demonstrated that water adsorption problems may have generated low water potential values which in prior studies have been attributed to large cut surface area to volume ratios.     

西南喀斯特地区四种植物水分生理的初步研究

通过对喀斯特地区的4种植物红背山麻杆、圆叶乌桕、青檀和水冬瓜的水分特征进行测定和比较,结果表明:植物的组织含水量、临界饱和亏缺和需水程度均存在显著差异,其抗旱能力以青檀最强;水分利用效率饱和点以落叶灌木红背山麻杆最高,在600μmol.m-2·s-1左右,光辐射与气孔导度呈对数关系;而三个落叶乔木树种的WUE的光饱和点均在400μmol·m-2·s-1左右,光辐射与蒸腾速率、气孔导度均呈线性极显著相关关系;观测结果没有显示蒸腾饱和现象。     

Behavior of Corn and Sorghum under Water Stress and during Recovery

Corn (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum vulgare, Pers.) plants were grown in a vermiculite-gravel mixture in controlled environment chambers until they were 40 days old. Water was withheld until they were severely wilted, and they were then rewatered. During drying and after rewatering stomatal resistance was measured with a diffusion porometer each morning, and water saturation deficit and water potential were measured on leaf samples. The average resistance of the lower epidermis of well watered plants was lower for corn than for sorghum. When water stress developed, the stomata began to close at a higher water potential in corn than in sorghum. The stomata of both species began to reopen normally soon after the wilted plants were rewatered, and on the 2nd day the leaf resistances were nearly as low as those of the controls. The average leaf water potential of well watered corn was −4.5 bars; that of sorghum, −6.4 bars. The lowest leaf water potential in stressed corn was −12.8 bars at a water saturation deficit of 45%. The lowest leaf water potential in stressed sorghum was −15.7 bars, but the water saturation deficit was only 29%. At these values the leaves of both species were tightly rolled or folded and some injury was apparent. Thus, although the average leaf resistance of corn is little lower than that of sorghum, corn loses much more of its water before the stomata are fully closed than does sorghum. The smaller reduction in water content of sorghum for a given reduction in leaf water potential is characteristic of drought-resistant species.     

Stem water storage capacity and efficiency of water transport: their functional significance in a Hawaiian dry forest

We investigated the contribution of internal water storage and efficiency of water transport to the maintenance of water balance in six evergreen tree species in a Hawaiian dry forest. Wood‐saturated water content, a surrogate for relative water storage capacity, ranged from 70 to 105%, and was inversely related to its morphological correlate, wood density, which ranged between 0·51 and 0·65 g cm^?3. Leaf‐specific conductivity (k_L) measured in stem segments from terminal branches ranged from 3 to 18 mmol m^?1 s^?1 MPa^?1, and whole‐plant hydraulic efficiency calculated as stomatal conductance (g) divided by the difference between predawn and midday leaf water potential (Ψ_L), ranged from 70 to 150 mmol m^?2 s^?1 MPa^?1. Hydraulic efficiency was positively correlated with k_L (r² = 0·86). Minimum annual Ψ_L ranged from ? 1·5 to ? 4·1 MPa among the six species. Seasonal and diurnal variation in Ψ_L were associated with differences among species in wood‐saturated water content, wood density and k_L. The species with higher wood‐saturated water content were more efficient in terms of long‐distance water transport, exhibited smaller diurnal variation in Ψ_L and higher maximum photosynthetic rates. Smaller diurnal variation in Ψ_L in species with higher wood‐saturated water content, k_L and hydraulic efficiency was not associated with stomatal restriction of transpiration when soil water deficit was moderate, but avoidance of low minimum seasonal Ψ_L in these species was associated with a substantial seasonal decline in g. Low seasonal minimum Ψ_L in species with low k_L, hydraulic efficiency, and wood‐saturated water content was associated with higher leaf solute content and corresponding lower leaf turgor loss point. Despite the species‐specific differences in leaf water relations characteristics, all six evergreen tree species shared a common functional relationship defined primarily by k_L and stem water storage capacity.     

Physiological responses to water stress following a conditioning period in berseem clover

Berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is an important crop in semi-arid regions; its herbage and seed yields are often reduced by water stress. Our objectives were (i) to determine the effect of water stress, applied after a conditioning period, on water relations, proline accumulation and plant dry weight, and (ii) to investigate if some physiological responses differed in varieties of berseem. Five cultivars (Axi, Bigbee, Lilibeo, Sacromonte and Saniros) were grown in a controlled environment, and subjected to four irrigation treatments (T1, T2, T3 and T4 referring to plants irrigated to field capacity every 1, 2, 3 or 4 d, respectively) during a conditioning period (12 d). T1 treatment indicated the well-watered control, whereas T2, T3 and T4 treatments represented the conditioned plants. Leaf water potential (Ψ), osmotic potential (Ψπ), relative water content (RWC), gravimetric soil water content (GSWC) and leaf proline concentration were recorded during the conditioning period and a subsequent water deficit period (3 d) applied at early flowering growth stage. The conditioned plants subjected to subsequent water deficit maintained higher values of Ψ, Ψπ, RWC and GSWC, and lower values of leaf proline concentration. Reductions in parameter values were inversely related to the water stress severity that plants had previously experienced. At the end of the experiment, T1 showed 42%, 58% and 31% lower values for Ψ, Ψπ and RWC, respectively, than those of T4. Conditioned plants were also shorter and accumulated less leaf, stem and total dry weight. The conditioning treatments did not affect the relation between Ψ and Ψπ since conditioned plants show similar values of Ψπ as the control at the same Ψ value. Thus, drought acclimation in berseem clover contributed to water stress tolerance by the maintenance of tissue hydration. The berseem cultivars examined showed differences in plant growth parameters, but they were very similar for physiological responses to water deficit. The main genetic difference was recorded for turgor maintenance capacity. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Leaf recovery responses during rehydration after water deficit in two bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars

Abstract

Our hypothesis was that recovery responses (RI and RII) upon rehydration, after 1 and 8 d of moderate (WDI) and severe water deficit (WDII), are evidence of tolerance in two commercial bean cultivars, Tacarigua (T cv) and VUL-73-40 (V cv). Recovery of leaf water (Ψw) and osmotic potentials (Ψs), and relative water content (LRWC), showed strong dependence on soil water potential (sΨw) followed by protein content; recovery connection between stomatal conductance and soil Ψw is showed. Chlorophyll (a + b), Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (Rubisco) activity, dry biomass (DM), and leaf area (LA) recovery were sensitive to WD intensity. Specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf density (D) recovery were less dependent on WD intensity and in time-dependent manner; V cv recovery was slower, showed faster recovery of Rubisco activity and DM due to slower recovery in SLA and D, which promoted it. Rubisco activity presented correlations with LRWC and Ψw at moderate and severe WD in both cultivars, and significant correlation with Ψs was observed in V cv. We conclude that recovery after rehydration reveals intrinsic tolerance to WD, due to an integration of metabolic and structural interactions, in responses to leaf water status components.     

Water stress development in kale leavesin situ and in water supplied cut leaves

The development of temporary water stress during the day-light hours, characterized by a decrease of the values of the water potential (?_w) and increase of the values of water saturation deficit (ΔW _sat) was found not only in the leaves of intact kale plants but also in cut leaves with their petioles immersed in water. These results indicate that the leaf resistance to water transport could not be supposed as negligible. The same decrease of ? _w was accompanied with the higher increase of ΔW _sat in cut leaves than in leavesin situ.     

玉米生育期土壤-植物-大气连续体水流阻力与水势的分布

根据玉米生育期的田间试验资料分析了土壤-植物-大气连续体中水势和水流阻力的分布,结果表明土壤与植物叶片之间的水势差在玉米抽雄期前达0.8—1.0MPa,到抽雄期以后达1.0—1.5MPa,叶片与大气之间的水势差则在抽雄期前后分别达80—120MPa和60—80MPa;连续体内的水流阻力主要在叶片与大气之间.建立了连续体中玉米叶片水势的动态模拟公式,模拟叶水势具有较高的精度.最后,揭示了叶片蒸腾速率与叶-气系统水势差和水流阻力的关系,当叶片与大气之间的水势差达90—100MPa之后,蒸腾速率随叶-气间水势差增加而减小.     

Diffusive conductance of rice (Oryza sativa) leaves during gradually induced soil water stress

The diffusive conductance (C_s) of rice (Oryza sativa cvs Jaya and Bala) leaves was measured during a soil drying cycle from flooding to decreasing soil water potential (φ_s) in a controlled-environment chamber. Plants were grown continuously under 5 cm submergence up to 69 days after transplanting and thereafter were subjected to gradual soil drying for a period of 17 days in the vegetative growth stage. In both the cultivars, the values of C_s were generally more on adaxial than abaxial leaf surfaces. This response of stomata during the period of soil drying was independent of leaf rolling. Further, the slopes of the curves (C_s, vs φ_s) also did not differ significantly (P= 0·05). The total C_s, of both cultivars during flooding was almost equal (0·60 cm s^-1) but at the end of the soil drying cycle, the values of total C_s, were 0·11 cm s^-l at ψ_s of -1·3 MPa and 0·08 cm s^-1 at ψ_s, of -0·8 MPa in cvs Jaya and Bala, respectively. For total C_s, slopes differed significantly (P = 0·05). A close relationship between total C_s, and ψ_s, in both cultivars (C_s, = 0·58-0·40 ψ_s, for cv. Jaya and C_s= 0·46-0·56 ψ_s, for cv. Bala) indicated that stomata were sensitive to increasing soil water deficit.     

Effect of decreased rate of water absorption on water balance of leaf tissue

The influence of decrease of water absorption rate on the transpiration rate and the development of water saturation deficit (WSD) was studied on the leaf segments of kale. Solutions of polyethyleneglycol (0-25m, 0-50m, O-75m and 1-00m) and mannitol (0-50m) were used as osmotic agents. The rate of water absorption decreased to zero when the concentration of polyethyleneglycol was 0-25m. At a concentration higher than 0-50m, water from the tissue diluted the external solution. The transpiration rate of samples affected by polyethyleneglycol or mannitol was only a little lower than that of control samples. WSD was noticeably increased only in the absorbing part of segment; in the adjoining, transporting part of segment WSD was practically the same in all variants. WSD in the transpiring part was slightly increased only in some cases. Due to decrease of osmotic potential of the external solution also the gradient of water potential changed. In the case of absorption from pure water, water potential gradually decreased from the absorbing to the transpiring part. Under the influence of polyethyleneglycol or mannitol solution the highest water potential was in the transporting part and from this point water potential decreased to both opposite sides.     

Combined effects of long-term salinity and soil drying on growth, water relations, nutrient status and proline accumulation of Sesuvium portulacastrum

The interaction between soil drying and salinity was studied in the perennial halophyte, Sesuvium portulacastrum. Rooted cuttings were individually cultivated for three months in silty-sandy soil under two irrigation modes: 100 and 25% of field capacity (FC). The amount of the evapotranspirated water was replaced by a nutrient solution containing either 0 or 100 mM NaCl. Whole-plant growth, leaf water content, leaf water potential (Psi(w)), and Na+, K+, and proline concentrations in the tissues were measured. When individually applied, both drought and salinity significantly restricted whole-plant growth, with a more marked effect of the former stress. However, the effects of the two stresses were not additive on whole-plant biomass or on leaf expansion. Root growth was more sensitive to salt than to soil drying, the latter being even magnified by the adverse impact of salinity. Leaf water content was significantly reduced following exposure to water-deficit stress, but was less affected in salt-treated plants. When simultaneously submitted to water-deficit stress and salinity, plants displayed higher values of water and potassium use efficiencies, leaf proline and Na+ concentrations, associated with lower leaf water potential (-1.87 MPa), suggesting the ability of S. portulacastrum to use Na+ and proline for osmotic adjustment.     

Influence of germination date on Dioon edule (Zamiaceae) seedling tolerance to water stress

Dioon edule seedling mortality is mostly attributed to dehydration by prolonged drought, even when they present xeromorphic characteristics like the adult plants. The effect of germination date (GD) and soil water deficit on seedling tolerance to water stress was assessed. The seedlings germinated and grown from mature seeds every month from December to April GD were selected to evaluate the leaf area, photosynthetic pigment content, crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) activity, stomatal conductance (gs) and leaflet anatomy at soil water potential (Ψs) of 0.0 MPa (day 1), ?0.1 MPa (day 40), ?1.0 MPa (day 90), ?1.5 MPa (day 130), and a control (0.0 MPa at day 130) to recognize differences due to leaf development. The seedlings shifted from C₃ to CAM cycling when exposed to water stress at Ψs of ?1.0 MPa, like adult plants. The March–April GD seedlings with undeveloped sclerified hypodermis and stomata, presented reduced leaf area, lower Chlorophyll a/b ratio, higher CAM activity and midday partial stomatal closure when reached Ψs of ?1.0 MPa. These have higher probability of dehydration during severe drought (February–April) than those of the December–February GD with similar Ψs. Plants used for restoration purposes must have full leaf development to increase the survival.     

Inferring foliar water uptake using stable isotopes of water

A growing number of studies have described the direct absorption of water into leaves, a phenomenon known as foliar water uptake. The resultant increase in the amount of water in the leaf can be important for plant function. Exposing leaves to isotopically enriched or depleted water sources has become a common method for establishing whether or not a plant is capable of carrying out foliar water uptake. However, a careful inspection of our understanding of the fluxes of water isotopes between leaves and the atmosphere under high humidity conditions shows that there can clearly be isotopic exchange between the two pools even in the absence of a change in the mass of water in the leaf. We provide experimental evidence that while leaf water isotope ratios may change following exposure to a fog event using water with a depleted oxygen isotope ratio, leaf mass only changes when leaves are experiencing a water deficit that creates a driving gradient for the uptake of water by the leaf. Studies that rely on stable isotopes of water as a means of studying plant water use, particularly with respect to foliar water uptake, must consider the effects of these isotopic exchange processes.     

延安公路山辽东栎林优势植物水分适应性及适应类型分析

以陕西省延安公路山辽东栎林群落为对象,测定林内外不同状态下12种优势植物的水势日进程、自然饱和亏、临界饱和亏等水分利用参数,分析它们在林内和林外孤立木状态下的水分利用多样性和水分平衡策略,以揭示辽东栎群落水分利用多样性在群落持续发育中的作用.结果表明:(1)在林内或林外12种优势植物的水势日变化趋势基本一致,一天内每一时段物种间水势值跨度不同,林内种间水势跨度为0.85～1.93 Mpa,林外种间水势跨度为0.6～1.83Mpa;林内物种间日最低水势(-1.43～-3.05 Mpa)及临界饱和亏(63.12%～92.59%)变幅较大;各优势植物水势日进程与气象因子显著相关.(2)林内外各时段物种间水势跨度不同,14:00和17:00林外物种间水势跨度大于林内;12种植物的水势日变化与林内有显著差异(P<0.05),且在林内和林外环境下水分参数具有相似变化趋势.(3)根据黎明前水势、日最低水势、自然饱和亏、临界饱和亏将辽东栎林内12种优势植物水分利用策略聚类分为 4个水分适应类型,每个适应类型具有特殊的水分适应方式.可见,辽东栎群落内12种优势植物的水分利用参数及其对环境适应表现出多样性特点,为该群落持续发育奠定了基础.