Effects of melatonin feeding on smoltification in masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou)

Influences of photoperiod on plasma melatonin profiles and effects of melatonin administration on long-day-induced smoltification in masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) were investigated in order to reveal the roles of melatonin in the regulation of smoltification in salmonids. Under light-dark (LD) cycles, plasma melatonin levels exhibited daily variation, with higher values during the dark phase than during the light phase. The duration of nocturnal elevation under short photoperiod (LD 8:16) was longer than that under long photoperiod (LD 16:8). Melatonin feeding (0.01, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg body weight) elevated plasma levels of melatonin in a dose-dependent manner for at least 7 h but not for 24 h. When masu salmon reared under short photoperiod were exposed to long photoperiod (LD 16:8) and fed melatonin (1 mg/kg body weight) 7 hours before the onset of darkness, a significantly smaller proportion of smolts appeared in the melatonin-fed group after 32 days than in the control group. However, after 59 days of the treatment, there was no difference in the proportion of smolts between the control and melatonin-treated groups. Thus, melatonin feeding mimicked the effects of short photoperiod, which delays but does not completely suppress smoltification. These results indicate that the day length is transduced into changes in the duration of nocturnal elevation in plasma melatonin levels, and that artificial modification of the plasma melatonin pattern possibly delays the physiological processes of smoltification induced by long-day photoperiodic treatment.     

Role of growth regulators in differentiation processes of maize (Zea mays L.) organs

The following paper deals with the character of endogenous auxins and gibberellinlike substances in the maize tassel and ear primordia during differentiation. Using bioassay the character of substances extracted from tassel primordia, internodes below the tassel, ear primordia and stem base was determined and correlated with the course of morphogenesis and differentiation. A low level of auxins and a high content of gibberellin-like substances accompanies the differentiation of terminal tassel. The differentiation of an ear is associated with an increment in auxin content while the level of gibberellin-like substances decreases. The character of growth substances in primordia remains practically unchanged in the course of further differentiation. The inhibitions appear in the plant and probably start numerous morphological reductions in the pistillate inflorescence structure or inhibit the growth of lateral primordia on the stemetc. The treatment of plants with maleic hydrazide at the beginning of tassel differentiation shifts the normal levels of endogenous regulators and brings about the transformation of tassel primordia into an ear. This transformation is accompanied by a marked rise in gibberellin-like substances, by an increment in auxins and the appearance of inhibitors.     

Cleavage site of a major yolk protein (MYP) determined by cDNA isolation and amino acid sequencing in sea urchin,Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus

The grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) is a small nocturnal primate exhibiting daily torpor. In constant ambient temperature (22-24 degrees C), body temperature (Tb) and locomotor activity were monitored by telemetry in animals exposed to short (SP: 10 h light/day) or long (LP: 14 light/day) photoperiods. They were first fed ad libitum for 8 days and then subjected to 80% restricted feeding for 8 more days. During ad libitum feeding, locomotor activity was significantly lower in SP-exposed animals than in LP-exposed animals. Whatever the photoperiod, animals entered daily hypothermia within the first hours following the light onset. Depth of daily hypothermia increased irregularly under SP exposure, whereas minimal daily Tb was constantly above 35 degrees C under LP exposure. After the transfer from long photoperiod to short photoperiod corresponding to the induction of seasonal fattening, locomotor activity and depth of controlled daily hypothermia did not change significantly. In contrast, food restriction led to a significant increase in locomotor activity and in frequency of daily torpor (Tb<33 degrees C) and body temperature reached minimum values averaging 25 degrees C. However, SP-exposed animals exhibited lower minimal daily Tb and higher torpor duration than LP exposed animals. Therefore, daily torpor appears as a rapid response to food restriction occurring whatever the photoperiod, although enhanced by short photoperiod.     

Effects of some growth regulators on in vitro flowering of Streptocarpus nobilis

Leaf discs from vegetative Streptocarpus nobilis plants were cultured in vitro in media with cytokinin (BAP or K at 0.35 mg.1^?1) and auxin (IAA, NAA or 2,4-D at 0.1 mg.1^?1). Under short days (8-h photoperiod) in medium with IAA and BAP, floral buds developed in 100% of the cultures; under long days (16-h photoperiod) only shoots were formed. In medium with IAA and K, flowering was reduced. Flowers rarely formed in medium containing NAA and K, but roots developed profusely. NAA + BAP promoted leafy shoots which rarely flowered later. The effect of 2,4-D was to inhibit flowering completely and to induce callusing and formation of teratomous structures.     

Interaction between day length and phytohormones in the control of potato tuberization in the in vitro culture

We studied the interaction of the day length, cytokinins, and gibberellins in the control of tuberization in potato (Solanum tuberosum L, cv. Desire) plants and derived transgenic plants with the inserted PHYB gene from Arabidopsis encoding the synthesis of phytochrome B apoprotein and put under the control of the 35S CaMV promoter. Plantlets were cultured in vitro on hormone-free MS medium containing 5% sucrose and kinetin (1 mg/l) or/and GA (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l), at long day (LD, a 16-h photoperiod), short day (SD, a 10-h photoperiod), or continuous darkness conditions. The content of cytokinins (Ck, zeatin, and zeatin riboside) in various plant organs was determined by the immunoenzyme method, and GA activity was measured in bioassay with dwarf pea. Potato plant transformation with the PHYB gene enhanced substantially tuber initiation inhibition by LD. Kinetin addition to culture medium enhanced tuberization and reduced Ck content in aboveground shoots and Ck redistribution in the favor of underground organs. GA addition to the culture medium suppressed tuberization and induced Ck accumulation in aboveground organs. We concluded that Ck role in tuberization depends on their predominant localization in above- or underground potato organs. The involvement of Ck and GA in the competitive relations between growing tubers and shoots is considered.     

The effect of short-term daily temperature drops on the processes of organogenesis in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cucumis sativus</Emphasis> L. under different photoperiods

The effect of nightly temperature drops of different durations (2, 4, and 6 h) on the processes of apical and axillary meristem organogenesis was studied in young Cucumis sativus L. under short photoperiod (day/night, 10/14 h), long photoperiod (16/8 h), and continuous light. Nightly temperature drops for 2 h had no effect on cucumber development under all studied photoperiods; however, longer temperature drops (4–6 h) accelerated the development under long photoperiod and continuous light. Short-term exposures to low temperature under continuous light considerably increased lateral branching of cucumber plants.     

Efficient shoot regeneration from internodal explants of Populus angustifolia, Populus balsamifera and Populus deltoids

In the present study, interactions between the duration of treatment with auxin and different cytokinins and their effect on shoot regeneration were evaluated with the aim to establish a rapid and efficient in vitro regeneration method applicable to a variety of Populus species. Three different species, Populus angustifolia, P. balsamifera, and P. deltoids, were chosen for that purpose. We were successful in regenerating plantlets from stem and petiole explants from all three chosen species using a four-step simple procedure. The first step was callus induction when the explants were exposed to an auxin-rich medium for 0-20 days. During the second step, they were transferred onto a cytokinin-rich medium for shoot bud induction. In the third step, the shoots regenerated were transferred onto a medium with reduced levels of cytokinins to promote shoot proliferation and elongation; finally, in the fourth step, the shoots were rooted and acclimated. A short period (6-10 days) of time of exposure to auxin was sufficient for shoot regeneration. A culture time longer than ten days in callus induction medium drastically reduced the efficiency of shoot regeneration. Besides, cytokinin type and concentration also affected the frequency of shoot induction. A 0.2 mg/l concentration of 2,4-D for callus induction followed by 0.02 mg/l of Thidiazuron for shoot formation proved to be the best treatment for adventitious shoot bud multiplication, generating a maximum of 10-13 shoots of P. balsamifera and P. angustifolia in ten weeks. In contrast, for P. deltoids, a combination of 1.1mg/l 2,4-D, 1.0mg/l NAA, 0.1mg/l zeatin for callus induction followed by a combination of 1mg/l zeatin plus 1.0mg/l BA for shoot bud induction was found to be the most effective, generating on average 15 shoots over a period of ten weeks.     

中华通草蛉自然越冬成虫在长、 短光周期下滞育解除中体内相关酶活力变化

光周期信号在昆虫的环境适应中发挥着重要作用, 昆虫能够通过感受光周期的变化来调节体内生理生化过程, 以适应环境的变化。为明确光周期对中华通草蛉Chrysoperla sinica越冬成虫滞育解除过程中酶活力的影响, 本研究测定了长光周期（15L∶9D）和短光周期（9L∶15D）条件下, 成虫体内过氧化氢酶（CAT）、 超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、 Na⁺K⁺-ATP酶和乳酸脱氢酶（LDH） 4种重要酶活力的变化。结果表明： 中华通草蛉雌、 雄成虫CAT活性在长光周期处理5 d达最高值后呈下降趋势; 短光周期处理CAT活性在处理5 d达最高值, 且高于长光周期处理, 在处理10 d迅速下降至最低值, 且均显著低于长光周期处理的CAT活性（P=0.005）, 后迅速上升并在处理15 d （P<0.05）和20 d （P<0.005）活性显著高于长光周期处理。雌、 雄成虫SOD活性在长光周期下处理10 d达最高值, 且显著高于对照（P<0.001）, 且除处理5 d雄虫SOD活性与对照无显著性差异外（P=0.558）其余处理活性均显著低于对照（P<0.05）。雌成虫长光周期处理5 d 的SOD活性显著低于短光周期（P<0.001）, 其余处理活性均显著高于短光周期; 雄成虫长光周期下处理的SOD活性均高于短光周期下, 且处理5 d （P=0.04）, 15 d （P<0.001）和20 d （P=0.003）的活性差异显著。两种光周期条件下雌、 雄成虫Na⁺K⁺-ATP酶活性随处理时间延长呈上升-下降-上升趋势, 且均显著高于处理0 d成虫酶活性（P<0.001）; 短光周期处理不同时间Na⁺K⁺-ATP酶活性均高于长光周期处理, 且除雄成虫处理15 d无显著性差异（P=0.142）外, 其余均差异显著（P<0.05）。两种光周期条件下雌、 雄成虫LDH活性随处理时间延长呈下降趋势, 且均显著低于对照（P<0.001）。中华通草蛉越冬成虫在长、 短两种光周期条件下体内酶活力的差异可能是影响两种光周期下成虫滞育解除过程中体内不同生化物质含量与生殖状态的重要因子。     

Influence of Photoperiod and Leaf Age on Crassulacean Acid Metabolism in Portulacaria afra (L.) Jacq

The possibility that Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is subject to long day photoperiodic control in Portulacaria afra (L.) Jacq., a facultative CAM plant, was studied. Periodic measurements of ¹⁴CO₂ uptake, stomatal resistance, and titratable acidity were made on plants exposed to long and short day photoperiods. Results indicates that waterstressed P. afra had primarily nocturnal CO₂ uptake, daytime stomatal closure, and a large diurnal acid fluctuation in either photoperiod. Mature leaf tissue from nonstressed plants under long days exhibited a moderate diurnal acid fluctuation and midday stomatal closure. Under short days, there was a reduced diurnal acid fluctuation in mature leaf tissue. Young leaf tissue taken from nonstressed plants did not utilize the CAM pathway under either photoperiod as indicated by daytime CO₂ uptake, lack of diurnal acid fluctuation, and incomplete daytime stomatal closure.

The induction of CAM in P. afra appears to be related to the water status of the plant and the age of the leaf tissue. The photosynthetic metabolism of mature leaves may be partly under the control of water stress and of photoperiod, where CAM is favored under long days.

     

Role of the pituitary gland in the development of photorefractoriness and generation of long-term changes in prolactin secretion in rams

Hypothalamo-pituitary disconnected Soay rams were exposed to two photoperiodic treatments: 1) constant long days (16L:8D) for 48 wk after pretreatment under short days (LD group), and 2) constant short days (8L:16D) for 48 wk after pretreatment under long days (SD group). In the LD group, plasma prolactin (PRL) concentrations increased from 0 to 8 wk (maximum: 143.3 +/- 8.4 microg/l; 8.8 +/- 1. 2 wk), decreased from 9 to 34 wk (minimum: 15.6 +/- 1.6 microg/l; 34. 5 +/- 1.5 wk), and finally increased again under the constant conditions, with a similar cyclical pattern for all individuals. In the SD group, PRL concentrations showed an inverse pattern (minimum: 8.6 +/- 2.6 microg/l; 17.1 +/- 2.0 wk; maximum: 46.4 +/- 5.5 microg/l; 30.2 +/- 3.2 wk), with more variability. Plasma concentrations of FSH were basal in both groups. The duration of the daily nocturnal melatonin peak (measured at 10, 24, and 44 wk) remained close to 8 h under long days (high-fidelity melatonin signal) but decreased significantly (13.8 h to 9.3 h) under short days (low-fidelity melatonin signal). The results support the conclusion that the melatonin signal encoding photoperiod acts within the pituitary gland to induce both acute (inductive) and chronic (refractory) effects photoperiod on PRL secretion.     

Effects of prolonged artificial photoperiod on circulating prolactin and melatonin levels in seasonal ewes

Crossbred ewes exposed to long days for 46 months prior to photoperiod reversal showed no alteration in the duration or amplitude of the circulating melatonin peak between 24 and 46 months of continuous long day exposure. By 3 months after photoreversal to short days, both the amplitude and duration of the peak had adapted to the new scotophase. In short day treated ewes, the melatonin peak was abolished by 46 but not 24 months of short day exposure, and was not fully restored in all ewes 3 months after photoreversal. Mean prolactin levels over 24 h remained high up to 46 months of long day treatment, and declined 3 months after short day exposure. Conversely, mean prolactin levels remained low up to 46 months of short day treatment, increasing 3 months after exposure to long days. Thus: (i) depletion of the melatonin-synthesizing capability of the ovine pineal gland by prolonged exposure to long nights is not completely reversed after 3 months of continuous long day exposure, and (ii) a nocturnal melatonin peak is not essential for maintenance of plasma prolactin levels under these conditions.Special issue dedicated to Dr. Lawrence Austin.     

Importance of duration of nocturnal melatonin secretion in determining the reproductive response to inductive photoperiod in the ewe

The pineal gland, through its nocturnal melatonin secretion, mediates the effects of inhibitory (long) and stimulatory (short) photoperiod on reproduction in female sheep. Earlier studies revealed that duration of the nighttime melatonin rise is important in determining the inhibitory effect of day length on reproduction in the ewe. The present study tested whether the duration is also important in mediating the inductive response to short days. Pinealectomized ewes, housed under long days, received a short-day melatonin infusion (16-h duration) for 90 days. Reproductive status was monitored from the response to estradiol negative feedback of luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion. This short-day melatonin pattern led to unambiguous reproductive induction, despite the exposure to inhibitory long days. The increase in serum LH was comparable, in terms of latency and magnitude, to that in pinealectomized controls receiving the same short-day melatonin pattern under short days, and in pineal-intact controls transferred from long to short days. Since the reproductive status conformed to the length of time that melatonin was elevated each day rather than to photoperiod, these results support the conclusion that duration of the nighttime melatonin rise mediates the reproductive response of the ewe to an inductive photoperiod. In all, the melatonin rhythm is considered an integral component of the physiologic mechanism measuring day length; through duration of its nocturnal secretion, melatonin encodes both inhibitory and stimulatory photoperiods.     

Do endogenous opioid peptides mediate the effects of photoperiod on release of luteinizing hormone and prolactin in ovariectomized ewes?

Three experiments were done to determine if endogenous opioid peptides (EOPs) mediate the effects of photoperiod on release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and prolactin (Prl) in ovariectomized (OVX) ewes. Intravenous infusions of 0.5 naloxone X h-1 X kg body weight-1 for 3.5 h increased (P less than 0.01) mean plasma concentrations of LH and decreased (P less than 0.025) mean interpulse interval (period) of LH pulses in OVX ewes exposed to long day lengths (16L:8D). Infusions of either 1.0 or 2.5 mg morphine-SO4 X h-1 X kg-1 for 3 h increased (P less than 0.005) the period of LH pulses and increased (P less than 0.005) concentrations of Prl in OVX ewes during the breeding season. In OVX ewes exposed to long (16L:8D) or short (8L:16D) day lengths infusions of naloxone increased (P less than 0.05) mean concentrations of LH, whereas morphine decreased (P less than 0.01) mean concentrations of LH. These effects were attributed to changes in period of LH pulses (P less than 0.001). The drug X photoperiod interactions were not significant for LH parameters. Naloxone did not affect Prl release in either long- or short-day groups, but morphine increased (P less than 0.001) Prl release during long and short day lengths. The effect of morphine on Prl release was more pronounced in ewes exposed to long day lengths than in those exposed to short day lengths. In conclusion, EOPs inhibit the LH pulse generator in OVX ewes. However, it is doubtful that the EOPs mediate the steroid-independent effects of photoperiod on LH release. The results also suggest that photoperiod may influence Prl release via opiate neurons.     

Influence of melatonin on the testicular regression induced by subcutaneous testosterone pellets in male rats kept in long or short photoperiod

Daily afternoon injections of 25 micrograms melatonin for 12 weeks had no effect on testicular weights of male rats kept in long photoperiod (14L:10D); similarly, exposure of rats to short photoperiod (2L:22D) had no effect on gonadal weight. However, rats maintained in a long or short photoperiod and implanted every 2 weeks with a 15 mm Silastic pellet containing testosterone showed a significant reduction in testicular weight; this effect was more pronounced in rats exposed to a short photoperiod. Melatonin injections in testosterone-treated rats in a long photoperiod exacerbated the inhibitory effects of testosterone alone. Subcutaneous 2-weekly implants of a beeswax pellet containing 1 mg melatonin reversed the effects of the melatonin injections on relative testicular weights but not those due to short photoperiod exposure. Testosterone implants significantly reduced pituitary LH values in long and short photoperiod-exposed animals, more particularly in those exposed to short photoperiod. Melatonin injections alone or in combination with melatonin pellets did not further exaggerate the depression in pituitary LH due to testosterone alone in long photoperiod-exposed animals; similarly melatonin pellets did not reverse the depression in pituitary LH observed. No significant differences in plasma prolactin concentrations or in thyroxine concentrations or free thyroxine index were observed after any combination of treatments. We therefore suggest that the effects observed with short photoperiod may be due to melatonin.     

Twenty-four-hour profiles of prolactin and testosterone in ram lambs exposed to skeleton photoperiods consisting of various light pulses

Individual groups of 6 ram lambs were housed within a controlled environment and exposed to one of 6 photoperiod schedules. Groups I and II received 8 (short day) or 16 (long day) h of continuous light, respectively; Groups III, IV and V were exposed to asymmetrical skeleton photoperiods consisting of a main light period of 7 h followed 9 h later by a light pulse of 1 h, 15 min or 1 min duration, respectively, and Group VI was exposed to a symmetrical skeleton photoperiod consisting of two 1-h light pulses positioned 16 h apart. After 4 weeks of treatment serum concentrations of prolactin and testosterone were measured over 24 h. Long-day responses characteristic of the 16L:8D photoperiod (i.e. elevated prolactin and reduced testosterone) were obtained in each of the asymmetric light-pulse treatment groups, but whereas prolactin was elevated over the full 24 h in lambs exposed to 16L:8D, two prominent nocturnal prolactin releases were largely responsible for the high 24-h mean prolactin values in Groups III, IV and V. Reduced serum testosterone in these same groups could not be attributed to a diurnal pattern of secretion but was associated with an overall decrease in testosterone pulse frequency. Prolactin and testosterone levels in Group IV were intermediate between those observed in lambs exposed to 8 or 16 h of light. In summary, light pulses of short duration (1 min) positioned at 17 h after dawn can produce endocrine changes in lambs similar to those observed in lambs exposed to 16 h of continuous light.     

Refractoriness to short and long days determines the end and onset of the breeding season in subtropical goats

The objective was to determine whether refractoriness to short and long days were involved in the end and onset of the breeding season, respectively, in goats adapted to subtropical latitudes. Ovariectomized does given a subcutaneous implant constantly releasing estradiol-l7 β (OVX+E) were used in two experiments. Plasma LH concentrations were determined twice weekly. In Experiment 1, the control group remained in an open-shed pen (natural day length and ambient temperature). Two experimental groups were placed in light-proof buildings (with natural temperature variations). One group was exposed to natural simulated increasing days (winter to spring), whereas the other was exposed to a winter solstice photoperiod (10 h of light) from December 21 to April 28. In Experiment 2, the control group remained under natural day length and ambient temperature. One experimental group was exposed to natural simulated decreasing days (summer to autumn), whereas the other group was exposed to a summer solstice photoperiod (14 h of light) from June 21 to October 20. In Experiment 1, the breeding season was not prolonged in does maintained in the winter solstice day length. Mean dates of decrease in LH secretion (end of the breeding season) did not differ significantly between does exposed to natural (February 3 ± 5 d) or natural simulated photoperiod (January 26 ± 14 d) and those exposed to constant short days of winter solstice (February 4 ± 10 d). In Experiment 2, the onset of the breeding season was not delayed in does maintained in the summer solstice day length. Mean dates of increase in LH secretion (onset of the breeding season) did not differ significantly between does exposed to natural (September 7 ± 8 d) or natural simulated photoperiod (September 18 ± 10 d) and those exposed to constant long days photoperiod of summer solstice (September 24 ± 4 d). In goats adapted to a subtropical environment, we concluded that: 1) the end of breeding season was due to refractoriness to short days, and not the inhibitory effect of increasing day length; and 2) the onset of the breeding season was due to refractoriness to long days, and not a stimulatory effect of decreasing day length.     

Proteomic analysis of shoot tissue during photoperiod induced growth cessation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">V. riparia</Emphasis> Michx. grapevines

Background  

Growth cessation, cold acclimation and dormancy induction in grapevines and other woody perennial plants native to temperate continental climates is frequently triggered by short photoperiods. The early induction of these processes by photoperiod promotes winter survival of grapevines in cold temperate zones. Examining the molecular processes, in particular the proteomic changes in the shoot, will provide greater insight into the signaling cascade that initiates growth cessation and dormancy induction. To begin understanding transduction of the photoperiod signal, Vitis riparia Michx. grapevines that had grown for 35 days in long photoperiod (long day, LD, 15 h) were subjected to either a continued LD or a short photoperiod (short day, SD, 13 h) treatment. Shoot tips (4-node shoot terminals) were collected from each treatment at 7 and 28 days of LD and SD for proteomic analysis via two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis.     

The effect of cold temperature exposure and long-day photoperiod on the termination of the reproductive diapause of newly emerged female Pissodes strobi (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Abstract

• 1 There is confusion in the literature concerning a possible reproductive diapause in the adult white pine weevil Pissodes strobi.
• 2 We evaluated the effects of temperature, photoperiod, feeding substrate and mating status on the sexual maturation and oviposition of female white pine weevils.
• 3 Less than 30% of female P. strobi became sexually mature and laid eggs without experiencing dormancy under a temperature regime of 2 °C for 4 weeks.
• 4 Among the females that experienced a cold temperature treatment after emergence, 80% laid eggs after dormancy when exposed to a long‐day (LD 16 : 8 h) photoperiod and 17.6% laid eggs when exposed to a short‐day (LD 8 : 16 h) photoperiod.
• 5 Significantly more eggs were laid by all the females (with and without a cold treatment) when subjected to a long‐day photoperiod compared with a short‐day photoperiod.
• 6 A period of cold temperature followed by exposure to a long‐day photoperiod with warmer temperatures is required to break reproductive diapause and to obtain a good oviposition response in female P. strobi.
• 7 This study reveals the existence of much intraspecific variation in the response of the white pine weevil to temperature and photoperiod with respect to the induction and termination of reproductive diapause.

     

Effects of photoperiod, melatonin administration and thyroid block on spontaneous daily torpor and temperature regulation in the white-footed mouse,Peromyscus leucopus

Summary Cold exposed (13°C) mice maintained on a short day photoperiod (9L:15D) became torpid 9 times more frequently than long day photoperiod (16L:8D) animals (Table 1). Mice on a short day photoperiod also exhibited a 26% increase in nesting behavior, a 9% decrease in food consumption and a 49% increase in norepinephrine induced thermogenesis (Table 2). No change in resting metabolism was observed. Similarily, chronic melatonin administration (subcutaneously implanted beeswax pellet containing 3.5 mg melatonin) elicited a 2.5 fold increase in spontaneous daily torpor relative to shamimplanted mice (Table 3). Mice treated with melatonin exhibited a 33% increase in nesting behavior and a slight decrease in food consumption. Although thyroid block (propyl-thiouracil) increased the incidence of daily torpor only slightly, it did effect an 11% decrease in resting metabolism, a 42% decrease in norepinephrine induced thermogenesis and a 5% decrease in food consumption. Thyroid block did not alter nesting behavior.     

Effect of photoperiod and temperature on diapause in a Florida strain of the tropical warehouse moth Ephestia cautella

A photoperiodically-controlled diapause of the long-day, short-day type was identified in a brown-winged, yellow-eyed strain of Ephestia cautella (Walker). The proportion of larvae diapausing in very long photoperiods was less than in short photoperiods. The mean critical photoperiod, here defined as that photoperiod giving half the maximum percentage of insects that diapause in response to photoperiod at a given temperature, was between 12 and 13 hr for the long-day reaction at both 20 and 25°C. The principal sensitive phase occurred near the time of the last larval moult. The mean duration of diapause was 2–3 months at 20°C and slightly longer at 25°C. The optimum temperature for diapause development was near 15°C, all larvae pupating within 24 days after a 45-day exposure at this temperature. Diapause could be terminated whenever larvae diapausing at 20°C were exposed to as few as five long (15 hr) photoperiods at 25°C. Long photoperiods at 20°C, or short photoperiods (9 hr) at 25°C were less effective in terminating diapause.