Intensity of nitrification in soil as a function of time and soil moisture

Proceeding from three previously derived expressions for the intensity of nitrification in soil as a function of time (logΣN=K.logt+q), as a function of incubation moisture (logΣN=A.pF _i+B), as a function of initial moisture (logΣN=C.pF _v+D), it was shown that the nitrification intensity as a function of time and of moisture can be expressed by the bilinear function log ΣN=a.pF _i.logT+b.pF _i+c.logt+d; as a function of time and of initial moisture by the bilinear function logΣ=N=a.pF _v.logt+b.pF _v+c.logt+d; as a function of initial and incubation moisture by the bilinear function log ΣN=a.pF _ipF _v+b.pF _i+c.pF _v+d. The intensity of nitrification as a function of time, incubation moisture and initial moisture may be expressed by the multilinear function log ΣN=a.pF _i.pF _v.logt+b.pF _i.pF _v+c.pF _i.logt+d.pF _v.logt+e .pF _i+f.pF _v=g.logt+h. This function is valid for all the incubation moistures lying between pF _i 3.0 and 4.0 and for all initial moistures between 3.5 and 5.9 provided that the incubation temperature remains constant.     

Stomata constellation in the leaves of cotton, maize and wheat plants as a function of soil moisture and environment

In two locations, one subtropical and the other semidesert, the following three agricultural plant species were studied: cotton, maize and wheat. In each zone species were examined in irrigated and nonirrigated experimental plols for four leaf parameters: density of stomata and epidermis cells and length of stomala and leaf area. The following conclusions follow from the results: 1) The water deficit in the soil accompanied by extreme climatic conditions (August-September) led to a significant increment in the density of stomata and epidermis cells; in some of the varieties a decrease in length of stomata was observed. The decrease in leaf area in the nonirrigated plant was accompanied by an increase in ash content. Identical xeromorphic changes were stated in selected leaves the area of which was equal to those of the irrigated plants. In spite of the maximal number of stomata per unit area on both sides of Ihe blade a full turgor was maintained in the cells of the nonirrigated plants during the hottest and driest months and they survived until rains started (Novemher), although no significant changes were then noted in soil moisture within the sphere of the root dispersion.     

玉米生长季土壤呼吸的时间变异性及其影响因素

基于东北地区玉米生态系统土壤呼吸连续2个生长季的观测,阐明了土壤呼吸日、季节变化特征,综合分析了水热因子、土壤性质、生物量及叶面积指数（LAI）对土壤呼吸的影响。结果表明：玉米地土壤呼吸日变化为不对称的单峰型曲线,最小值和最大值分别出现在6：00-7：00和13：00左右。2005年玉米生长季土壤呼吸速率均值为3．16μmol CO2·m^-2·s^-1,最大值为4．77μmol CO2·m^-2·s^-1,出现在7月28日;最小值为1．31μmol CO2·m^-2·s^-1,出现在5月4日。统计分析表明：土壤温度是玉米生态系统土壤呼吸日变化的驱动因素;土壤温度和土壤水分是影响土壤呼吸季节变化的关键因素,二者可以解释玉米生长季土壤呼吸时间变异的87％;LAI和根系生物量与土壤呼吸速率呈正相关,说明生物因子对土壤呼吸季节变化也有影响;土壤有机质、全氮和碳氮比等土壤理化特性与土壤呼吸速率的关系较弱;玉米生长季追施氮肥明显促进土壤呼吸速率。     

黄土丘陵区小流域土壤水分时空变异

采用定位监测法,对2002—2005年黄土丘陵区小流域土壤水分的时空动态规律及其主要影响因素进行了分析.结果表明,研究区年均土壤水分剖面呈倒“L”型,水分最低点出现在1.0 m深处.表层（0～0.2 m）和下层（2.4 m以下）土壤水分年际间的差异达显著水平,而季节间的显著差异则表现在土壤表层和中层（1.0～2.4 m）;干旱年的降水不足显著提高了中、下层土壤水分的空间变异性,而丰水年的降水补充作用则显著降低了上层土壤水分的空间变异性,对中、下层土壤水分变异的影响不大.坡向对土壤水分变异的影响最大,其次是土地利用类型,坡位的影响最小.在干旱年或每年雨季开始时,坡向对土壤水分的影响随土层的加深而减弱,土地利用类型的影响则随之增强;在丰水年或每年雨季结束时,土地利用类型只对上层土壤水分状况具有显著影响,且其影响程度小于坡向的影响.     

Effect of different constant soil moisture levels on foliage development in maize

The effects of constant soil moisture levels of 90, 60 and 40% of the maximum capillary capacity, applied beginning from the planting of the germinated kernels, on the dynamics of the foliage development of maize was studied in relation to ontogenical changes in leaf area of individual leaves. There were two maxima in the growth of total leaf area (characterized by leaf area duration and loaf area relative growth rate) unrelated to the soil mositure. The first maximum which was less marked, appeared in the phase of 5–8 leaves, the second and main increase being observed before flowering in the phase of 10–12 leaves. The effects of continued decrease in soil moisture were a correspondingly progressive reduction in leaf area and delayed development of the whole plants. Plants with 60% soil moisture attained the same leaf area as those with 90% but only after the end of the vegetative phase. The greatest differences in rate of development between watering treatments appeared at the time of greatest increase in leaf area of control plants. Continued decrease in soil moisture markedly affected the development of the leaves at different insertion levels (especially in elder leaves). Clear-cut prolongation of ontogenesis took place under dry conditions. In conditions of higher soil moisture growth was rather limited or stopped after reaching a certain maximum.     

Effect of maize canopy and water repellency on moisture patterns in a Dutch black plaggen soil

Man-made raised sandy soils in the Netherlands are classified as brown or black plaggen soils. When dry, the brown soils are wettable, but the black soils are water repellent. For one growing season, transects were sampled in a maize cropped black plaggen soil at the Heino experimental farm. Due to interception and stemflow, water was concentrated near the roots of the maize. Between the maize rows, higher soil water contents were found in microdepressions, due to rainwater dripping to the ground from overhanging leaves. Redistribution of soil water from wet to dry areas was restricted by the water repellency of the dry sand. As a consequence, there was a distinct variation in soil moisture content. These irregular wetting patterns did not induce preferential downward flow, but widened over time; because the dry, water repellent subsoil impeded and resisted infiltration into the deeper subsoil.     

Nitrification in soil as a function of time

The dependence of nitrification on time may be expressed as ΣN=C/(m+1) ·t ^m+1 since its logarithmic form log ΣN=K logt+q suggests the possibility of a linear relationship between log ΣN and logt such as was found in more than 50 cases of nitrification in different soils. It was further shown that the equations for the integration curve and for the rate curve are of the same form, differing only in the constants.     

Interspecific variation in sapling mortality in relation to growth and soil moisture

To examine the causes of landscape variation in forest community composition, we have quantified sapling mortality as a function of growth and soil moisture for seven dominant species in transition oak-northern hardwood forests of the northeastern USA. We located saplings in sites that encompassed a wide range of variation in soil moisture and light availability. In mesic conditions, the probability of mortality decays rapidly with increasing growth among shade tolerant species and more gradually among shade intolerant species: the rank order of survivorship at low growth rates is Tsuga canadensis > Fagus grandifolia > Acer saccharum > Fraxinus americana > Acer rubrum > Quercus rubra > Pinus strobus . The relationship between probability of mortality and growth does not vary with soil moisture among species insensitive to drought: Tsuga canadensis , Quercus rubra, and Pinus strobus . However, probability of mortality increases substantially with decreasing soil water availability for the other four species. Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia have high mortality rates under xeric conditions even when their growth is not suppressed. Acer rubrum and Fraxinus americana exhibited a steady but more gradual increase in the probability of mortality with decreasing soil moisture. Among the five deciduous hardwood species we examined there is a weak inverse relationship between the ability to survive growth suppression, a measure of shade tolerance, and the ability to survive in xeric conditions, a measure of drought tolerance. Tsuga canadensis , however, is tolerant of growth suppression and exhibits high survivorship in xeric conditions, while Pinus strobus is intolerant of growth suppression but insensitive to soil moisture. Species differences in water-dependent mortality are consistent with the species distributions across landscape gradients of soil water availability.     

土壤水分时空变异及其与环境因子的关系

土壤水分的时空变异是指在一定的景观内,不同时间、地点和土层的土壤水分特征存在明显的差异性和多样性。土壤水分时空变异是由多重尺度上的土地利用（植被）、气象（降雨）、地形、土壤、人为活动等诸因子综合作用的结果,但就其某一具体地区而言存在着重点尺度和主控因子,土壤水分时空变异的重点尺度与主控因子的时空关系因时间、空间和尺度而异。本文综述了土壤水分（尤其是黄土高原地区）的时空变异与其环境因子时空关系的研究进展,并提出了广眨开展多重时空尺度上土壤水分的时空变异与其诸因素的时空关系,研究土壤水分时空变异性的尺度转换规律,确定重点尺度及其相应的主控因子。     

喀斯特峰丛洼地区坡地不同土地利用方式下土壤水分的时空变异特征

基于典型喀斯特峰丛洼地坡面土地利用方式试验火烧、刈割、刈割除根、封育、种植桂牧1号、种植玉米(面积分别为20m×70m)控制性试验建设,通过网格法(5 m×5 m)采样,用经典统计学和地统计学方法,分析了6种土地利用方式下(火烧、刈割、刈割除根、封育、种植桂牧1号、种植玉米)表层土壤水分在不同季节的空间变异特征。结果表明:喀斯特峰丛洼地土壤含水量均很高,雨季显著大于旱季,雨季为火烧封育、刈割除根玉米、桂牧1号刈割,旱季为刈割、火烧、刈割除根桂牧1号、封育玉米,均呈中等至强度变异,且含水量越低变异越大;不同土地利用方式土壤水分的自相关函数均呈由正向负方向发展的相同趋势,但拐点不同,且旱季大于雨季,不同土地利用方式旱季、雨季土壤水分的最佳拟合模型不同,但均呈中等或强烈的空间相关性,变程为6.8—213 m,且旱季大于雨季;同一土地利用方式旱季、雨季表层土壤水空间格局相似,不同土地利用方式空间格局则不同,因此在该区域进行植被恢复和生态重建时应采取不同的水资源利用策略。     

Sapling growth as a function of light and landscape-level variation in soil water and foliar nitrogen in northern Michigan

Interspecific differences in sapling growth responses to soil resources could influence species distributions across soil resource gradients. I calibrated models of radial growth as a function of light intensity and landscape-level variation in soil water and foliar N for saplings of four canopy tree species, which differ in adult distributions across soil resource gradients. Model formulations, characterizing different resource effects and modes of influencing growth, were compared based on relative empirical support using Akaike’s Information Criterion. Contrary to expectation, the radial growth of species associated with lower fertility (Acer rubrum and Quercus rubra) was more sensitive to variation in soil resources than the high fertility species Acer saccharum. Moreover, there was no species tradeoff between growth under high foliar N versus growth under low foliar N, which would be expected if growth responses to foliar N mediated distributions. In general, there was functional consistency among species in growth responses to light, foliar N, and soil water availability, respectively. Foliar N influenced primarily high-light growth in F. grandifolia, A. rubrum, and Q. rubra (but was not significant for A. saccharum). In A. saccharum and A. rubrum, for which soil water availability was a significant predictor, soil water and light availability simultaneously limited growth (i.e., either higher light or water increased growth). Simple resource-based models explained 0.74–0.90 of growth variance, indicating a high degree of determinism. Results suggest that nitrogen effects on forest dynamics would be strongest in high-light early successional communities but that water availability influences growth in both early successional and understory environments.     

Dry matter response of ryegrass to ammonium and nitrate sources of nitrogen as a function of soil texture and moisture

Summary InLolium perenne cv. S23 grown in pots of soil to which nitrogen was applied at rates of 0, 60, 120 and 180 mg N/kg, ammonium significantly increased root mass compared with nitrate, whereas both nitrogen sources produced similar yields of herbage. Total dry matter production in the herbage and roots increased within the textural sequence: loamy sand, coarse sandy loam and loam. The increases in the latter two soils over the loamy sand were 35% and 50%, respectively. Depletions of available water of 50% and 80% reduced yields at the first harvest by 19% and 50% compared with the field capacity. The corresponding reductions in the second harvest were only 16% and 10%, because residual effects were then limiting. The amount of dry matter produced per unit of nitrogen absorbed indicated that textural class was less restrictive than moisture supply to efficient use of nitrogen within the plant. Furthermore, its efficient physiological use was limited at the 50% depletion, although its absorption from the soil was not affected. The results illustrated the inefficiency of the substitution of nitrogen for soil moisture: even at low yield levels three times more nitrogen was absorbed per unit increase in dry matter at 80% depletion of available water compared with the field capacity. The significant first-order interactions that affected yield were moisture by soils, and moisture by nitrogen rate.     

差巴嘎蒿灌丛土壤和根系含水量对降雨的响应

以科尔沁沙地半固定沙丘灌木差巴嘎蒿(Artemisia halodendron)为对象,用土钻取样法和壕沟法研究了2006年生长季降雨后差巴嘎蒿周围土壤和根系含水量的时空分布特征及其相互关系,并计算了该灌丛的水量平衡.结果表明:该灌丛在降雨后对水分有暂时存储作用;降雨结束后,灌丛主干的茎流作用使得灌丛中心位置的土壤含水量高于灌丛丛幅垂直投影1/4和3/4处的土壤含水量;雨后6 h灌丛根系含水量与灌丛中心位置的土壤含水量呈极显著的负相关(r=-0.89,P＜0.01);灌丛根系含水量在雨后126 h内出现胁迫脉冲间歇反应.水量平衡计算表明,灌丛边缘外1 m处土壤蒸散量高于灌丛覆盖区的蒸散量,灌丛覆盖可降低土壤水分蒸散速率.     

Transpiration as a function of soil temperature and soil water stress

An apparatus was developed for the measurement of transpiration rates of Trifolium repens. The transpiration rates were measured under controlled conditions of soil water stress and soil temperature. Other environmental parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity, light intensity and air speed were held constant. Diffusive resistances were calculated and stomatal aperture changes were recorded for all treatment combinations. A significant interaction between soil water stress and soil temperature was observed for stomatal closures. Stomatal closure was observed even in the so-called wet range of soil water stress. An increase in mesophyll resistance or incipient drying was observed for several treatment combinations. The mesophyll resistance was shown to increase as soil water stress increased.     

Transpiration in response to variation in microclimate and soil moisture in southeastern deciduous forests

Responses of forests to changes in environmental conditions reflect the integrated behavior of their constituent species. We investigated sap flux-scaled transpiration responses of two species prevalent in upland eastern hardwood forests, Quercus alba in the upper canopy and Acer rubrum in the low to mid canopy, to changes in photosynthetically active radiation above the canopy (Q_o), vapor pressure deficit within the canopy (D), and soil moisture depletion during an entire growing season. Water loss before bud break (presumably through the bark) increased linearly with D, reaching 8% of daily stand transpiration (E_C) as measured when leaf area index was at maximum, and accounting for 5% of annual water loss. After leaves were completely expanded and when soil moisture was high, sap flux-scaled daily E_C increased linearly with the daily sum of Q_o. Species differences in this response were observed. Q. alba reached a maximum transpiration at low Q_o, while A. rubrum showed increasing transpiration with Q_o at all light levels. Daily E_C increased in response to daily average D, with an asymptotic response due to the behavior of Q. alba. Transpiration of A. rubrum showed a greater response to soil moisture depletion than did that of Q. alba. When evaluated at a half-hourly scale under high Q_o, mean canopy stomatal conductance (G_S) of individuals decreased with D. The sensitivity of G_S to D was greater in species with higher intrinsic G_S. Regardless of position in the canopy, diffuse-porous species in this and an additional, more mesic stand showed higher G_S and greater stomatal sensitivity to environmental variation than do ring-porous species.     

Chemical forms of plant and soil iron as influenced by soil moisture

Summary Experiments were conducted to determine whether soil moisture content has an effect on the chemical forms of plant and soil iron. Soybean plants, variety Lee, were grown on Adelanto loam soil under greenhouse conditions. Two different moisture levels, 75 per cent and 120 per cent of the moisture equivalent, were maintained in soil samples placed in individual containers. The same moisture treatments were used for separate soil samples on which the test plants were grown.Soil iron forms were determined in the moisture-treated soil by using different extracting agents. A significant decrease in soil iron extracted with 10^–4 M EDTA from soil at the high moisture level was attributed to a relative increase in the free calcium ion.Soybean plants grown under the high moisture level were chlorotic while those under the low moisture level were green in appearance. Plant samples were taken at two stages of growth for subsequent analysis.The chemical analysis of the leaf tissues have shown the presence of equal amounts of total iron and less amounts of water-soluble and active iron in chlorotic tissues as compared to non-chlorotic tissues. The difference found between chlorotic and non-chlorotic plants in the amount of iron in the water extract was in the trichloroacetic acid-soluble fraction. The water- and salt-soluble protein nitrogen was approximately the same in chlorotic and non-chlorotic leaves.     

中国典型森林生态系统土壤水分时空分异及其影响因素

森林土壤水分作为物质与能量循环的载体影响林木生长与发育,并通过影响水分在陆气之间的循环与分配影响区域气候。基于我国不同气候带的9个森林生态系统定位观测站的长期观测数据,探究了2005-2016年中国典型森林生态系统土壤水分的空间分异及其时间动态,并进一步分析了影响其时空分异的环境因素。主要研究结论如下：（1）9个森林生态系统的土壤水分多年均值介于12.45%-36.30%之间,空间上呈现中温带、亚热带、热带土壤水分较高,暖温带土壤水分较低的分布特征。降水蒸散差（降水与蒸散的差值）可以解释我国森林生态系统土壤水分空间分异的62%（P<0.05）;（2）我国北部与东部季风区森林区域土壤水分呈上升趋势,降水上升是主因,其中暖温带北京、南亚热带鼎湖山与鹤山森林土壤水分上升趋势显著,增幅分别为0.67%/a、1.72%/a与0.69%/a;西南地区森林生态系统土壤水分呈下降趋势,该趋势由降水下降与蒸散上升共同导致,其中中亚热带贡嘎山及哀牢山森林生态系统土壤水分下降趋势显著,降幅分别为-1.77%/a与-0.94%/a;土壤水分时间分异与降水蒸散差的相关性最高（R=0.59,P<0.01）;（3）土壤水分呈下降趋势的森林生态系统中,春季土壤水分变化主导了年际变化,土壤水分上升的森林生态系统中,年际变化则是由秋、冬季主导。（4）与ERA-interim土壤水分再分析数据比较得出,两者在空间格局与变化趋势上均具有较高的一致性。CERN土壤水分观测数据反映了无人为干扰的自然条件下森林土壤-植被-气候之间的反馈作用,可为基于模型的土壤水分研究提供长时序的验证数据。     

基于VIC模型模拟的干旱区土壤水分及其时空变化特征

土壤水分在陆地水循环中起着十分重要的作用,大尺度、长时间及高精度的土壤水分监测是旱情预警、生态恢复与精准农业决策部署的重要指导依据,而陆面过程模式模拟在时空尺度上可获得更准确的土壤水分特征。以渭-库绿洲为目标靶区,结合VIC陆面过程模型和土地利用类型变化,探讨2009—2016年研究区年际间不同地类土壤水分时空变化规律,并用实测数据进行精度验证,结果表明:(1)东北区域土壤含水率模拟值较高,土壤含水量低值集中在研究区西部与南部区域。(2)盐渍土壤表层含水量高于耕地,每年雨季,灌丛土壤含水量高于其他3种地类,由于大量荒地转为耕地,绿洲荒地土壤含水量与耕地土壤相互接近,在28.784—53.741 mm之间。(3)渭-库绿洲近7年耕地与盐渍地面积大幅度增加,耕地与盐渍地面积增幅达35%以上,荒地面积相较2009年减少约46%,灌丛面积增幅约15%。(4)荒地土壤含水量伴随面积大幅度下降,土壤含水量数值集中在正态曲线28.6 mm以上区域。VIC模拟值与实测值均方根误差(RMSE)范围在1.4—2.80之间,RE范围在0.90—2.20之间,R²范围在0.40—0.60...     

Phosphorus depletion in the rhizosphere as influenced by soil moisture

To study the influence of soil moisture on phosphorus (P) depletion in the rhizosphere, maize (Zea mays cv. Trak) was pre-grown in vermiculite filled-PVC tubes for 9 days and then the plants with the tubes were transplanted into soil columns maintained at two soil moisture levels () of 0.14 and 0.20 cm³ cm^–3 for 10 days. The soil columns were separated at 1 cm depth by a nylon screen of 53 m inner mesh size, into 1 cm soil layer above and 3 cm soil column below screen. A root mat developed over the screen, but root hairs only could penetrate it. Regardless of the soil moisture level in the columns, and adequate and equal water and nutrients supply was maintained via wicks from an external nutrient solution to the plant roots in vermiculite. After 10 days, the soil columns were separated from the root mats, quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen and sliced into thin layers (0.2mm) using a refrigerated microtome to give soil samples at defined distances from the root mats for analyses. Lower soil moisture (=0.14) resulted in narrower and steeper depletion profile of 0.5 M NaHCO₃ extractable P (NaHCO₃-P_i) as compared to higher soil moisture (=0.20). Depletion of P in soil solution in the immediate vicinity of root mats did not differ much but the extension of the depletion zones was 0.10 cm at =0.14 and 0.20 cm at =0.20. The depletion up to 0.05cm with =0.14 and up to 0.07 cm with =0.20 was uniform, and may be attributed to the depletion in the root hair zone. Beyond the root hair zones, the theory of diffusion and mass flow was able to explain the observed differences in shape and extent of the P depletion profiles at the two soil moisture levels.