再可塑性在学习记忆中作用的研究进展

突触可塑性是学习记忆功能的重要细胞机制,也是神经科学领域的研究热点之一,其中长时程增强(long-term potentiation,LTP)与长时程抑制(long-term depression,LTD)是突触可塑性的两种主要表现形式。作为突触可塑性高级形式的再可塑性(metaplasticity),是指突触可塑性的可塑性,即突触活动的过往史对后继的突触可塑性产生影响,这表明突触的可塑性依赖于当前的突触"状态",因此对探究大脑学习记忆功能与疾病对认知的影响具有重要意义。自再可塑性的概念提出以来,便引起了广泛关注,大量的实验现象与细胞机制的研究成果已经使再可塑性的理论体系逐渐完善。尤其是近年来,人们发现再可塑性调节不仅可以影响突触可塑性,在个体水平上,再可塑性调节也可以提高动物的学习记忆能力,并且可以调控神经网络对特定信息的编码。这些研究成果不仅极大地丰富了再可塑性的理论体系,也为人们探究学习记忆功能开辟了新的道路。本文从以下三个方面对再可塑性调节的研究进展进行了概括与总结:(1)再可塑性的主要分子机制;(2)再可塑性对学习记忆功能的影响;(3)再可塑性领域的研究展望。     

神经元的突触可塑性与学习和记忆

大量研究表明,神经元的突触可塑性包括功能可塑性和结构可塑性,与学习和记忆密切相关.最近,在经过训练的动物海马区,记录到了学习诱导的长时程增强(long term potentiation,LTP),如果用激酶抑制剂阻断晚期LTP,就会使大鼠丧失训练形成的记忆.这些结果指出,LTP可能是形成记忆的分子基础.因此,进一步研究哺乳动物脑内突触可塑性的分子机制,对揭示学习和记忆的神经基础有重要意义.此外,在精神迟滞性疾病和神经退行性疾病患者脑内记录到异常的LTP,并发现神经元的树突棘数量减少,形态上产生畸变或萎缩,同时发现,产生突变的基因大多编码调节突触可塑性的信号通路蛋白,故突触可塑性研究也将促进精神和神经疾病的预防和治疗.综述了突触可塑性研究的最新进展,并展望了其发展前景.     

神经可塑性与认知功能关系研究进展

认知是神经中枢的高级智能活动,其神经生理特性是中枢神经之高度可塑性,涵盖神经网络、神经再生及突触连接等层次的可塑性调节变化。因突触可塑性是神经元之间信息传递之中心枢纽,亦为神经可塑性之主要部位。故本文主要从与突触可塑性相关的LTP、突触素、相关神经递质及临床相关疾病等方面阐述突触可塑性对认知功能的影响。     

谷氨酸转运体对癫痫持续状态大鼠突触可塑性的影响

探讨了在大鼠癫痫持续状态模型,谷氨酸转运体功能改变对突触可塑性的影响.健康成年雄性Wistar大鼠((304.06±13.79)g)随机分为5组,短期癫痫实验组(SE)及其对照组(SC),长期癫痫实验组(LE)及其对照组(LC),健康对照组(Sham).匹鲁卡品皮下注射(25 mg/kg)建立癫痫模型,建模14天后SE和LE组大鼠右侧海马内注射谷氨酸转运体抑制剂TBOA(7.5 nmol,lμ1),SC和LC组注射相同剂量的人工脑脊液.注射药物2 h后,SE和SC组检测脑电图(EEG):药物注射后2周,LJ巳和LC组检测内嗅区前穿通纤维-海马齿状回(PP-DG)长时程增强(LTP)和EEG.电生理学检测后动物灌流取脑做Fluoro-Jade-B染色.结果表明:脑电功率谱分析,SE组theta波段能量较sc组明显下降(P＜0.05),LE组与其对照Lc组相比,EEG的也theta波段能量无明显差异(P＞0.05);LTP检测显示.LE组与对照LC组相比,兴奋性突触后电位(EPSP)斜率升高(P＜0.01);Fluoro-Jade-B染色显示,LE组与对照LC组相比,给予TBOA 2周后细胞变性明显增加.结果提示,癫痫持续状态后,海马神经元损伤,TBOA导致谷氨酸转运体功能障碍,加重癫痫所至神经元损伤,对海马区突触可塑性产生影响.     

低铅暴露对大鼠海马突触可塑性范围的影响

长时程增强(LTP)和长时程抑制(LTD),作为突触可塑性变化的两种主要形式,被认为是学习记忆的可能机制.突触可塑性范围可以定量的表征突触可塑性的变化.应用在体电生理技术,在同一只动物上记录LTP和LTD,研究了发育过程中慢性铅暴露对大鼠海马齿状回颗粒细胞突触可塑性范围和双脉冲易化的影响.对照组的LTP、LTD的幅度分别是187.9±6.2%(n＝7),85.2±1.6%(n＝7),而铅处理组分别为140.5±1.2%(n＝7),102.8±3.8%(n＝7).与对照组相比,铅处理组的LTP的幅度降低了47.4%,LTD的诱导几乎完全被铅损伤.先诱导出LTP后再通过低频刺激则可以在铅处理组诱导出LTD(81.5±2.2%(n＝7)),但远远小于对照组(66.8±4.3%(n＝7)).对照组突触可塑性范围是103.1±11.5%(n＝7),是铅处理组突触可塑性范围(37.7±9.6%(n＝7))的2.7倍.在对照组,双脉冲易化反应是从脉冲间隔20ms时开始,而铅处理组则是从50ms开始.当脉冲间隔为70ms时,两组的双脉冲易化幅度均达到最大值,但易化的强度有显著的差异,分别为211.6±32.2%(n＝7),11.1±26.9%(n＝7).结果表明铅显著地抑制了大鼠海马齿状回颗粒细胞的双脉冲易化效应,降低了双脉冲易化的间隔范围和突触可塑性范围.这可能是铅损伤学习记忆功能的机制之一.     

短时程突触可塑性的功能意义

短时程的突触可塑性是突触可塑性的一种重要表现形式,对实现神经系统的正常功能起着重要作用.突触的短时程可塑性能够加强突触传递的确定性,调节大脑皮层兴奋和抑制之间的平衡,形成神经活动的时间、空间特性,形成并调节皮层丘脑网络的同步振荡.突触的短时程可塑性可能也参与了注意、启动效应、睡眠节律和学习记忆等神经系统高级功能的实现.     

马桑内酯致痫对大鼠突触及血脑屏障超微结构的影响

目的 观察马桑内酯致痫大鼠运动皮质突触和血脑屏障的超微结构改变,探讨突触和血脑屏障在癫痫发作过程的可能机制.方法 成年健康雄性SD大鼠20只,随机分为对照组、癫痫组;癫痫组用马桑内酯注入到大鼠侧脑室,制作癫痫动物模型;7天后取大脑运动皮质,做超薄切片,电镜观察运动皮质突触和血脑屏障的超微结构改变.结果 ①癫痫组突触界面弯曲形态、突触活性区、突触后致密物和穿孔性突触明显增加;②癫痫组内皮细胞、基膜、周细胞出现明显水肿,基膜电子密度降低.结论 ①马桑内酯致痫改变了大鼠突触和血脑屏障超微结构,提高突触的传导活性,增强血脑屏障的通透性;②突触和血脑屏障的结构改变可能是癫痫发作重要机制.     

突触后致密物与癫痫苔藓纤维出芽

突触后致密物是化学性突触后膜内侧的特化结构,为神经信息传递的重要结构基础,参与突触后信号转导的调节和整合,在学习、记忆和突触可塑性等生理过程中有重要作用。近年来发现,癫痫发作伴有突触后致密物成分的改变,可能参与了癫痫的病理生理过程。     

短时程突触可塑性研究概况

突触可塑性是神经系统所具有的重要特征,也是神经系统实现其功能的重要保障。按照持续的时间划分,突触可塑性可分为短时程突触可塑性和长时程突触可塑性。短时程突触可塑性包括短时程增强和短时程压抑两种类型。与长时程突触可塑性不同,短时程突触可塑性的产生主要依赖于神经递质释放概率的变化,其往往决定神经回路的信息处理和反应模式,不仅直接参与了对输入信号的识别和处理,而且还可对长时程突触可塑性的表达产生重要影响。     

突触可塑性与阿尔茨海默病

突触可塑性是指突触在神经元持续活动影响下发生的特异性数目、结构和功能的变化,它是学习记忆形成的基础,在神经功能中发挥重要的作用。突触可塑性包括突触传递和结构可塑性,二者与阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)发病有密切关系。本文从突触可塑性相关的长时程增强(longterm potentiation,LTP)、突触相关蛋白、神经递质以及神经受体和离子在AD脑内的改变,探讨突触可塑性在AD发病机制中的可能作用,为研究AD发病机制,预防和治疗提供新思路。     

Metaplasticity: tuning synapses and networks for plasticity

Synaptic plasticity is a key component of the learning machinery in the brain. It is vital that such plasticity be tightly regulated so that it occurs to the proper extent at the proper time. Activity-dependent mechanisms that have been collectively termed metaplasticity have evolved to help implement these essential computational constraints. Various intercellular signalling molecules can trigger lasting changes in the ability of synapses to express plasticity; their mechanisms of action are reviewed here, along with a consideration of how metaplasticity might affect learning and clinical conditions.     

NMDA receptor-dependent ocular dominance plasticity in adult visual cortex

The binocular region of mouse visual cortex is strongly dominated by inputs from the contralateral eye. Here we show in adult mice that depriving the dominant contralateral eye of vision leads to a persistent, NMDA receptor-dependent enhancement of the weak ipsilateral-eye inputs. These data provide in vivo evidence for metaplasticity as a mechanism for binocular competition and demonstrate that an ocular dominance shift can occur solely by the mechanisms of response enhancement. They also show that adult mouse visual cortex has a far greater potential for experience-dependent plasticity than previously appreciated. These insights may force a revision in how data on ocular dominance plasticity in mutant mice have been interpreted.     

Glial tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) generates metaplastic inhibition of spinal learning

Injury-induced overexpression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) in the spinal cord can induce chronic neuroinflammation and excitotoxicity that ultimately undermines functional recovery. Here we investigate how TNFα might also act to upset spinal function by modulating spinal plasticity. Using a model of instrumental learning in the injured spinal cord, we have previously shown that peripheral intermittent stimulation can produce a plastic change in spinal plasticity (metaplasticity), resulting in the prolonged inhibition of spinal learning. We hypothesized that spinal metaplasticity may be mediated by TNFα. We found that intermittent stimulation increased protein levels in the spinal cord. Using intrathecal pharmacological manipulations, we showed TNFα to be both necessary and sufficient for the long-term inhibition of a spinal instrumental learning task. These effects were found to be dependent on glial production of TNFα and involved downstream alterations in calcium-permeable AMPA receptors. These findings suggest a crucial role for glial TNFα in undermining spinal learning, and demonstrate the therapeutic potential of inhibiting TNFα activity to rescue and restore adaptive spinal plasticity to the injured spinal cord. TNFα modulation represents a novel therapeutic target for improving rehabilitation after spinal cord injury.     

Structural Plasticity Can Produce Metaplasticity

Background

Synaptic plasticity underlies many aspect of learning memory and development. The properties of synaptic plasticity can change as a function of previous plasticity and previous activation of synapses, a phenomenon called metaplasticity. Synaptic plasticity not only changes the functional connectivity between neurons but in some cases produces a structural change in synaptic spines; a change thought to form a basis for this observed plasticity. Here we examine to what extent structural plasticity of spines can be a cause for metaplasticity. This study is motivated by the observation that structural changes in spines are likely to affect the calcium dynamics in spines. Since calcium dynamics determine the sign and magnitude of synaptic plasticity, it is likely that structural plasticity will alter the properties of synaptic plasticity.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study we address the question how spine geometry and alterations of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors conductance may affect plasticity. Based on a simplified model of the spine in combination with a calcium-dependent plasticity rule, we demonstrated that after the induction phase of plasticity a shift of the long term potentiation (LTP) or long term depression (LTD) threshold takes place. This induces a refractory period for further LTP induction and promotes depotentiation as observed experimentally. That resembles the BCM metaplasticity rule but specific for the individual synapse. In the second phase, alteration of the NMDA response may bring the synapse to a state such that further synaptic weight alterations are feasible. We show that if the enhancement of the NMDA response is proportional to the area of the post synaptic density (PSD) the plasticity curves most likely return to the initial state.

Conclusions/Significance

Using simulations of calcium dynamics in synaptic spines, coupled with a biophysically motivated calcium-dependent plasticity rule, we find under what conditions structural plasticity can form the basis of synapse specific metaplasticity.     

Stress,metaplasticity, and antidepressants

A large body of evidence has established a link between stressful life events and development or exacerbation of depression. At the cellular level, evidence has emerged indicating neuronal atrophy and cell loss in response to stress and in depression. At the molecular level, it has been suggested that these cellular deficiencies, mostly detected in the hippocampus, result from a decrease in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) associated with elevation of glucocorticoids. Thus, an increase in expression of BDNF, facilitating both neuronal survival and neurogenesis, is thought to represent a converging mechanism of action of various types of antidepressant treatments (e.g., antidepressant drugs and transcranial magnetic stimulation). However, as also revealed by converging lines of evidence, high levels of glucocorticoids down-regulate hippocampal synaptic connectivity ('negative' metaplasticity), whereas an increase in expression of BDNF up-regulates connectivity in the hippocampus ('positive' metaplasticity). Therefore, antidepressant treatments might not only restore cell density but also regulate higher-order synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus by abolishing 'negative' metaplasticity, and thus restore hippocampal cognitive processes that are altered by stress and in depressed patients. This antidepressant regulatory effect on hippocampal synaptic plasticity function, which may, in turn, suppress 'negative' metaplasticity in other limbic structures, is discussed.     

Drugging the methylome: DNA methylation and memory

Over the past decade, since epigenetic mechanisms were first implicated in memory formation and synaptic plasticity, dynamic DNA methylation reactions have been identified as integral to long-term memory formation, maintenance, and recall. This review incorporates various new findings that DNA methylation mechanisms are important regulators of non-Hebbian plasticity mechanisms, suggesting that these epigenetic mechanisms are a fundamental link between synaptic plasticity and metaplasticity. Because the field of neuroepigenetics is so young and the biochemical tools necessary to probe gene-specific questions are just now being developed and used, this review also speculates about the direction and potential of therapeutics that target epigenetic mechanisms in the central nervous system and the unique pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties that epigenetic therapies may possess. Mapping the dynamics of the epigenome in response to experiential learning, even a single epigenetic mark in isolation, remains a significant technical and bioinformatic hurdle facing the field, but will be necessary to identify changes to the methylome that govern memory-associated gene expression and effectively drug the epigenome.     

Mechanisms of heterosynaptic metaplasticity

Synaptic plasticity is fundamental to the neural processes underlying learning and memory. Interestingly, synaptic plasticity itself can be dynamically regulated by prior activity, in a process termed ‘metaplasticity’, which can be expressed both homosynaptically and heterosynaptically. Here, we focus on heterosynaptic metaplasticity, particularly long-range interactions between synapses spread across dendritic compartments, and review evidence for intracellular versus intercellular signalling pathways leading to this effect. Of particular interest is our previously reported finding that priming stimulation in stratum oriens of area CA1 in the hippocampal slice heterosynaptically inhibits subsequent long-term potentiation and facilitates long-term depression in stratum radiatum. As we have excluded the most likely intracellular signalling pathways that might mediate this long-range heterosynaptic effect, we consider the hypothesis that intercellular communication may be critically involved. This hypothesis is supported by the finding that extracellular ATP hydrolysis, and activation of adenosine A2 receptors are required to induce the metaplastic state. Moreover, delivery of the priming stimulation in stratum oriens elicited astrocytic calcium responses in stratum radiatum. Both the astrocytic responses and the metaplasticity were blocked by gap junction inhibitors. Taken together, these findings support a novel intercellular communication system, possibly involving astrocytes, being required for this type of heterosynaptic metaplasticity.     

Neurotransmission: emerging roles of endocannabinoids

Postsynaptic release of endocannabinoids can inhibit presynaptic neurotransmitter release on short and long timescales. This retrograde inhibition occurs at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses and may provide a mechanism for synaptic gain control, short-term associative plasticity, reduction of synaptic crosstalk, and metaplasticity.     

The dual role of the extracellular matrix in synaptic plasticity and homeostasis

Recent studies have deepened our understanding of multiple mechanisms by which extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules regulate various aspects of synaptic plasticity and have strengthened a link between the ECM and learning and memory. New findings also support the view that the ECM is important for homeostatic processes, such as scaling of synaptic responses, metaplasticity and stabilization of synaptic connectivity. Activity-dependent modification of the ECM affects the formation of dendritic filopodia and the growth of dendritic spines. Thus, the ECM has a dual role as a promoter of structural and functional plasticity and as a degradable stabilizer of neural microcircuits. Both of these aspects are likely to be important for mental health.     

Stable continual learning through structured multiscale plasticity manifolds

Biological plasticity is ubiquitous. How does the brain navigate this complex plasticity space, where any component can seemingly change, in adapting to an ever-changing environment? We build a systematic case that stable continuous learning is achieved by structured rules that enforce multiple, but not all, components to change together in specific directions. This rule-based low-dimensional plasticity manifold of permitted plasticity combinations emerges from cell type–specific molecular signaling and triggers cascading impacts that span multiple scales. These multiscale plasticity manifolds form the basis for behavioral learning and are dynamic entities that are altered by neuromodulation, metaplasticity, and pathology. We explore the strong links between heterogeneities, degeneracy, and plasticity manifolds and emphasize the need to incorporate plasticity manifolds into learning-theoretical frameworks and experimental designs.