Tenascin-C contains distinct adhesive, anti-adhesive, and neurite outgrowth promoting sites for neurons

The glia-derived extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-C (TN-C) is transiently expressed in the developing CNS and may mediate neuron-glia interactions. Perturbation experiments with specific monoclonal antibodies suggested that TN-C functions for neural cells are encoded by distinct sites of the glycoprotein (Faissner, A., A. Scholze, and B. Gotz. 1994. Tenascin glycoproteins in developing neural tissues--only decoration? Persp. Dev. Neurobiol. 2:53-66). To characterize these further, bacterially expressed recombinant domains were generated and used for functional studies. Several short-term-binding sites for mouse CNS neurons could be assigned to the fibronectin type III (FNIII) domains. Of these, the alternatively spliced insert TNfnA1,2,4,B,D supported initial attachment for both embryonic day 18 (E18) rat and postnatal day 6 (P6) mouse neurons. Only TNfn1-3 supported binding and growth of P6 mouse cerebellar neurons after 24 h, whereas attachment to the other domains proved reversible and resulted in cell detachment or aggregation. In choice assays on patterned substrates, repulsive properties could be attributed to the EGF-type repeats TNegf, and to TNfnA1,2,4. Finally, neurite outgrowth promoting properties for E18 rat hippocampal neurons and P0 mouse DRG explants could be assigned to TNfnB,D, TNfnD,6, and TNfn6. The epitope of mAb J1/tn2 which abolishes the neurite outgrowth inducing effect of intact TN-C could be allocated to TNfnD. These observations suggest that TN-C harbors distinct cell- binding, repulsive, and neurite outgrowth promoting sites for neurons. Furthermore, the properties of isoform-specific TN-C domains suggest functional significance of the alternative splicing of TN-C glycoproteins.     

Rab35 regulates neurite outgrowth and cell shape

Recent studies have identified Rab35 in the endocytic pathway and as a regulator of cytokinesis; however its molecular mechanisms are currently unknown. Here, we find that Rab35 colocalizes with actin filaments and with Cdc42, Rac1 and RhoA, and that Rab35 can activate Cdc42 both in vivo and in vitro. We find activated Rab35 stimulates neurite outgrowth in PC12 and N1E-115 cells via a Cdc42-dependent pathway and that siRNA knockdown of Rab35 activity abolishes neurite outgrowth in these cell lines. We conclude that one function of Rab35 is to regulate Rho-family GTPases and that this role has consequences for neurite outgrowth.

Structured summary

MINT-7012081: Rac1(uniprotkb:P63000) and Rab 35 (uniprotkb:Q15286) colocalize (MI:0403) by fluorescence microscopy (MI:0416)MINT-7012070: actin (uniprotkb:P60709) and Rab 35 (uniprotkb:Q15286) colocalize (MI:0403) by fluorescence microscopy (MI:0416)MINT-7012095: cdc42 (uniprotkb:P60953) and Rab 35 (uniprotkb:Q15286) colocalize (MI:0403) by fluorescence microscopy (MI:0416)     

Purification of the neurite outgrowth promoting fragment of mouse laminin.

A method for isolation of the neurite outgrowth promoting fragment of mouse laminin (fragment 8) is described in this paper. Besides producing excellent yields, this method was shown to be fast and practical, since it is based on a single step which consists in an ion exchange chromatography of elastase digested laminin.     

Integrin alpha 8 beta 1 promotes attachment, cell spreading, and neurite outgrowth on fibronectin.

The integrin alpha 8 subunit, isolated by low stringency hybridization, is a novel integrin subunit that associates with beta 1. To identify ligands, we have prepared a function-blocking antiserum to the extracellular domain of alpha 8, and we have established by transfection K562 cell lines that stably express alpha 8 beta 1 heterodimers on the cell surface. We demonstrate here by cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth assays that alpha 8 beta 1 is a fibronectin receptor. Studies on fibronectin fragments using RGD peptides as inhibitors show that alpha 8 beta 1 binds to the RGD site of fibronectin. In contrast to the endogenous alpha 5 beta 1 fibronectin receptor in K562 cells, alpha 8 beta 1 not only promotes cell attachment but also extensive cell spreading, suggesting functional differences between the two receptors. In chick embryo fibroblasts, alpha 8 beta 1 is localized to focal adhesions. We conclude that alpha 8 beta 1 is a receptor for fibronectin and can promote attachment, cell spreading, and neurite outgrowth on fibronectin.     

Laminin fragment E8 mediates PC12 cell neurite outgrowth by binding to cell surface beta 1,4 galactosyltransferase

A number of cell surface receptors bind to distinct laminin domains, thereby mediating laminin's diverse biological activities. Cell surface beta 1,4-galactosyltransferase (GalTase) functions as one of these laminin receptors, facilitating mesenchymal cell migration and PC12 cell neurite outgrowth on laminin. In this study, the GalTase binding site within laminin was identified as the E8 fragment by assaying purified fragments and by immunoprecipitating and immunoblotting galactosylated laminin using E8-reactive antibodies. Compared with intact laminin and other laminin fragments, E8 possessed the highest GalTase binding activity, using both membrane-bound and solubilized GalTase. More significantly, the neurite-promoting activity of fragment E8 was shown to be dependent upon its interaction with GalTase. Pregalactosylating purified E8 eliminated subsequent GalTase binding and consequently inhibited neurite initiation; parallel studies on laminin fragments E1-4 or E1 failed to affect neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, anti-GalTase IgG inhibited neurite initiation on purified E8 substrates; control IgG had no effect. These results localize the predominant GalTase binding domain in laminin to fragment E8 and demonstrate that the neurite-promoting activity of E8 is dependent upon its interaction with GalTase.     

A synthetic peptide containing the IKVAV sequence from the A chain of laminin mediates cell attachment, migration, and neurite outgrowth

Laminin is a basement membrane glycoprotein which consists of A, B1, and B2 chains. Laminin has diverse biological activities including promoting cell adhesion, migration, differentiation, growth, and neurite extension. Synthetic peptides from the active region of the A chain were prepared and tested for their biological activity. A 19-mer peptide (designated PA22-2), from just above the carboxyl globule on the long arm of the A chain, was found to promote cell adhesion, spreading, migration, and neurite outgrowth. By testing smaller sequences within the 19-mer peptide, a constituent pentapeptide, IKVAV (Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val), was identified as the active site for cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth. These data suggest that this sequence is one of the principle sites in laminin which regulate cellular behavior.     

Magnesium-dependent attachment and neurite outgrowth by PC12 cells on collagen and laminin substrata

We report a study of the substratum and medium requirements for attachment and neurite outgrowth by cells of the pheochromocytoma-derived PC12 line. In attachment medium containing both Ca2+ and Mg2+, more than 50% of cells attached within 1 hr to petri dishes coated with native collagen Types I/III or II, native or denatured collagen Type IV, laminin, wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), or poly-L-lysine; attachment to dishes coated with nerve growth factor (NGF) was only about 20% and attachment to uncoated dishes or to dishes coated with fibronectin or gelatin was almost nil. Neither prior culturing in the presence of NGF nor addition of NGF to the attachment medium significantly affected the extent of attachment to collagen or laminin. With Ca2+ (1 mM) as the sole divalent cation, cells attached normally to WGA, polylysine, and NGF, but failed to attach to collagen or laminin. With Mg2+ (1 mM) as the only divalent cation, attachment to all substrata was about the same as in medium with both Ca2+ and Mg2+. Like the ionic requirements, the kinetics of attachment, insensitivity to protease treatment of the cells, and inhibition by low temperature and sodium azide were similar for PC12 attachment to collagen and laminin, suggesting that a common molecular mechanism may underlie attachment to these substrata. The only significant difference observed was that addition of WGA (30 micrograms/ml) to the attachment medium inhibited attachment to collagen but promoted attachment to laminin. Finally, PC12 cells extended neurites on laminin, on native collagens I/III, II, and IV, and on denatured collagen IV; they did not extend neurites on denatured collagens I/III or II, NGF, or WGA. Neurite outgrowth on collagen and laminin occurred with Mg2+ as the sole divalent cation. These results suggest that the same Mg2+-dependent adhesion mechanism operates at the cell body and at the growth cone.     

The RGD containing site of the mouse laminin A chain is active for cell attachment, spreading, migration and neurite outgrowth

The laminin A chain has been sequenced by cDNA cloning and was found to contain an RGD sequence. Synthetic peptides containing the RGD sequence and flanking amino acids were active in mediating cell adhesion, spreading, migration, and neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, endothelial cell attachment to a laminin substrate was inhibited by an RGD-containing synthetic peptide. Antisera against the integrin (fibronectin) receptor, and monoclonal antibody to the integrin, VLA-6, inhibited cell interaction with laminin, as well as with peptides containing an RGD sequence. These results suggest that the RGD containing site of laminin is active and interacts with the integrin family of receptors in certain cells.     

Complementary expression and neurite outgrowth activity of netrin-G subfamily members.

Classical members of the UNC6/netrin family are secreted proteins which play a role as long-range cues for directing growth cones. We here identified in mice a novel member netrin-G2 which constitute a subfamily with netrin-G1 among the UNC6/netrin family. Both of these netrin-Gs are characterized by glycosyl phosphatidyl-inositol linkage onto cells, molecular variants presumably generated by alternative splicing and lack of any appreciable affinity to receptors for classical netrins. These genes are preferentially expressed in the central nervous system with complementary distribution in most brain areas, that is netrin-G1 in the dorsal thalamus, olfactory bulb and inferior colliculus, and netrin-G2 in the cerebral cortex, habenular nucleus and superior colliculus. Consistently, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that netrin-G1 molecules are present on thalamocortical but not corticothalamic axons. Thalamic and neocortical neurons extended long neurites on immobilized recombinant netrin-G1 or netrin-G2 in vitro. Immobilized anti-netrin-G1 antibodies altered shapes of cultured thalamic neurons. We propose that netrin-Gs provide short-range cues for axonal and/or dendritic behavior through bi-directional signaling.     

Identification of active regions for neurite outgrowth activity of neurocrescin

We previously identified and cloned a neurite outgrowth promoting protein, Neurocrescin (NC), from the extract of the chick denervated leg muscles. In this study, we explored the active region of NC for neurite outgrowth. Using the deletion mutants of NC, we tested their neurite outgrowth activity in the cultured telencephalic neurons of E5 chick embryos. We found three regions which independently had significant neurite outgrowth activity comparable with that of the extract of the chick denervated leg muscles. These regions were not homologous to any well-known active sites such as the laminin active region, IKVAV. In parallel, searching the endogenous deletion mutants of NC in the rat brain, we cloned a mutant in which the region including the larger part of one of the three active regions was deleted. The neurite outgrowth activity of the mutant was significantly lower than that of normal NC. These results suggest the physiological significance of these active regions.     

Merosin promotes cell attachment and neurite outgrowth and is a component of the neurite-promoting factor of RN22 schwannoma cells.

The laminin-like protein merosin was purified from human placenta in intact form and as pepsin fragments and compared to laminin in heparin affinity chromatography and cell binding assays. Intact merosin and a small fragment of merosin comprising the last two repeats of the heavy chain g domain bind to heparin. Intact merosin and large pepsin fragments of merosin, but not the small C-terminal fragment, mediate the attachment and spreading of several types of cells and promote neurite outgrowth from neuronal cells similar to laminin and its corresponding fragments. Cells with various integrin-type receptors for laminin attached equally well to merosin and laminin, suggesting that several of the known laminin binding receptors also bind to merosin. Antibodies to the beta 1 subunit of integrins inhibited neurite outgrowth on merosin as well as on laminin, confirming the involvement of integrin-mediated interaction of cells with both merosin and laminin. Schwannoma cells, which have previously been shown to produce a laminin-like, neurite-promoting factor, synthesize merosin in vivo and in vitro as shown by protein and mRNA analysis. The results suggest that merosin, which is the more abundant basement membrane protein in the laminin family, has properties very similar to laminin despite differences in the structure of the heavy chain. Furthermore, merosin may be identical to or a component of the neurite-promoting factors previously reported from heart, muscle, and Schwann cells.     

Fluorescent localization of calcium at sites of cell attachment and spreading

Chlorotetracycline (CTC), a calcium-chelating fluorescent probe identifies and localizes calcium when applied to cultured neural crest cells. The fluorescence occurs at specific membrane regions involved in cell attachment and spreading as well as with the formation of cytoskeletal stress fibers (actin microfilament bundles). The observed CTC reaction indicates that calcium sequestration and the development of these membrane-cytoskeletal features share a temporal and spatial pattern. Thus, the selective availability of calcium may be an important determinant of cell morphogenesis.     

Extracellular matrix and neurite outgrowth.

The complex relationship between neuronal cells and the extracellular matrix molecules with which they interact both positively and negatively is currently being investigated on many fronts. Major areas of experimental emphasis include the characterization of an increasing number of extracellular matrix and cell surface associated molecules, the identification of receptors for these molecules, and the analysis of the function of extracellular matrix molecules with respect to neuronal process outgrowth.     

Aggregation of microtubule initiation sites preceding neurite outgrowth in mouse neuroblastoma cells.

By examining microtubule regrowth using immunofluorescence with antibody to tubulin, we have studied the structure and intracellular localization of microtubule initiation sites in undifferentiated and differentiated mouse neuroblastoma cells. The undifferentiated cells are round and lack cell processes. They contain an average of 12 initiation sites per cell. Each of these sites, which are located near the cell nucleus, initiates the growth of several microtubules in a radial formation. In contrast to the undifferentiated cells, neuroblastoma cells stimulated to differentiate by serum deprivation are asymmetrical, containing one or two very long neurites. These cells have a single, large microtubule initiation center which can be visualized not only by immunofluorescence but by phase-contrast and differential interference microscopy as well. The initiation site measures 3-4 mu in diameter and is located in the cell body along a line defined by the neurite. During cell differentiation, the large initiation, the large initiation center seems to be formed by the aggregation of many smaller sites. This process procedes neurite extension by about 24 hr. The growth of microtubules from this center appears to be highly oriented, since most microtubules initially grow into the neurite processes rather than into the cell interior. Thus major changes in the structure and location of microtubule initiation sites occur during the differentiation of neuroblastoma cells. Similar changes are likely to be involved in alterations in the morphology of other cell types.     

Two distinct filopodia populations at the growth cone allow to sense nanotopographical extracellular matrix cues to guide neurite outgrowth

Background

The process of neurite outgrowth is the initial step in producing the neuronal processes that wire the brain. Current models about neurite outgrowth have been derived from classic two-dimensional (2D) cell culture systems, which do not recapitulate the topographical cues that are present in the extracellular matrix (ECM) in vivo. Here, we explore how ECM nanotopography influences neurite outgrowth.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We show that, when the ECM protein laminin is presented on a line pattern with nanometric size features, it leads to orientation of neurite outgrowth along the line pattern. This is also coupled with a robust increase in neurite length. The sensing mechanism that allows neurite orientation occurs through a highly stereotypical growth cone behavior involving two filopodia populations. Non-aligned filopodia on the distal part of the growth cone scan the pattern in a lateral back and forth motion and are highly unstable. Filopodia at the growth cone tip align with the line substrate, are stabilized by an F-actin rich cytoskeleton and enable steady neurite extension. This stabilization event most likely occurs by integration of signals emanating from non-aligned and aligned filopodia which sense different extent of adhesion surface on the line pattern. In contrast, on the 2D substrate only unstable filopodia are observed at the growth cone, leading to frequent neurite collapse events and less efficient outgrowth.

Conclusions/Significance

We propose that a constant crosstalk between both filopodia populations allows stochastic sensing of nanotopographical ECM cues, leading to oriented and steady neurite outgrowth. Our work provides insight in how neuronal growth cones can sense geometric ECM cues. This has not been accessible previously using routine 2D culture systems.     

Ganglioside modulation of neural cell adhesion molecule and N-cadherin- dependent neurite outgrowth

We have used monolayers of control 3T3 cells and 3T3 cells expressing transfected human neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) or chick N-cadherin as a culture substrate for PC12 cells. NCAM and N-cadherin in the monolayer directly promote neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells via a G-protein-dependent activation of neuronal calcium channels. In the present study we show that ganglioside GM1 does not directly activate this pathway in PC12 cells. However, the presence of GM1 (12.5-100 micrograms/ml) in the co-culture was associated with a potentiation of NCAM and N-cadherin-dependent neurite outgrowth. Treatment of PC12 cells with GM1 (100 micrograms/ml) for 90 min led to trypsin-stable increases in both beta-cholera toxin binding to PC12 cells and an enhanced neurite outgrowth response to N-cadherin. The ganglioside response could be fully inhibited by treatment with pertussis toxin. These data are consistent with exogenous gangliosides enhancing neuritic growth by promoting cell adhesion molecule-induced calcium influx into neurons.     

Identification of neurite outgrowth promoting sites on the laminin alpha 3 chain G domain

Laminins are expressed in specific tissues and are involved in various biological activities including promoting cell adhesion, growth, migration, neurite outgrowth, and differentiation. The laminin alpha3 chain is mainly located in the skin and is also expressed in the floor plate of the developing neural tube. Previously, we showed that the human laminin alpha3 chain LG4 module binds to syndecan-2/4, a membrane-associated proteoglycan, and promotes human fibroblast adhesion. Here, we have evaluated the neurite outgrowth activity of the laminin alpha3 chain LG4 and LG5 modules. Three overlapping recombinant proteins, which contained LG4 and/or LG5 modules of the human laminin alpha3 chain, were prepared using a mammalian cell expression system. Two proteins, rec-alpha3LG4-5 and rec-alpha3LG4, promoted cell attachment and neurite outgrowth of rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, but rec-alpha3LG5 was inactive. Twenty-two peptides covering the entire LG4 module were synthesized and tested for cell attachment and neurite outgrowth activity to identify active sites of the LG4 module. A3G75 (KNSFMALYLSKG, alpha3 chain 1411-1422) and A3G83 (GNSTISIRAPVY, alpha3 chain 1476-1487) promoted PC12 cell attachment and neurite outgrowth. Additionally, A3G75 and A3G83 inhibited PC12 cell attachment to rec-alpha3LG4. These results suggest that the A3G75 and A3G83 sites are important for PC12 cell attachment and neurite outgrowth in the laminin alpha3 chain LG4 module. We also conjugated the A3G75 and A3G83 peptides on chitosan membranes to test their potential as bio-materials. These peptide-conjugated chitosan membranes were more active for neurite outgrowth than the peptide-coated plates. These results suggest that the A3G75- and A3G83-conjugated chitosan membranes are applicable as bio-medical materials for neural tissue repair and engineering.     

Target cell contact suppresses neurite outgrowth from soma-soma paired Lymnaea neurons

Neurite extension from developing and/or regenerating neurons is terminated on contact with their specific synaptic partner cells. However, a direct relationship between the effects of target cell contact on neurite outgrowth suppression and synapse formation has not yet been demonstrated. To determine whether physical/synaptic contacts affect neurite extension from cultured cells, we utilized soma-soma synapses between the identified Lymnaea neurons. A presynaptic cell (right pedal dorsal 1, RPeD1) was paired either with its postsynaptic partner cells (visceral dorsal 4, VD4, and Visceral dorsal 2, VD2) or with a non-target cell (visceral dorsal 1, VD1), and the interactions between their neurite outgrowth patterns and synapse formation were examined. Specifically, when cultured in brain conditioned medium (CM, contains growth-promoting factors), RPeD1, VD4, and VD2 exhibited robust neurite outgrowth within 12-24 h of their isolation. Synapses, similar to those seen in vivo, developed between the neurites of these cells. RPeD1 did not, however, synapse with its non-target cell VD1, despite extensive neuritic overlap between the cells. When placed in a soma-soma configuration (somata juxtaposed against each other), appropriate synapses developed between the somata of RPeD1 and VD4 (inhibitory) and between RPeD1 and VD2 (excitatory). Interestingly, pairing RPeD1 with either of its synaptic partner (VD4 or VD2) resulted in a complete suppression of neurite outgrowth from both pre- and postsynaptic neurons, even though the cells were cultured in CM. A single cell in the same dish, however, extended elaborate neurites. Similarly, a postsynaptic cell (VD4) contact suppressed the rate of neurite extension from a previously sprouted RPeD1. This suppression of the presynaptic growth cone motility was also target cell contact specific. The neurite suppression from soma-soma paired cells was transient, and neuronal sprouting began after a delay of 48-72 h. In contrast, when paired with VD1, both RPeD1 and this non-target cell exhibited robust neurite outgrowth. We demonstrate that this neurite suppression from soma-soma paired cells was target cell contact/synapse specific and Ca(2+) dependent. Specifically, soma-soma pairing in CM containing either lower external Ca(2+) concentration (50% of its control level) or Cd(2+) resulted in robust neurite outgrowth from both cells; however, the incidence of synapse formation between the paired cells was significantly reduced. Taken together, our data show that contact (physical and/or synaptic) between synaptic partners strongly influence neurite outgrowth patterns of both pre- and postsynaptic neurons in a time-dependent and cell-specific manner. Moreover, our data also suggest that neurite outgrowth and synapse formation are differentially regulated by external Ca(2+) concentration.     

Identification of neurite outgrowth active sites on the laminin alpha4 chain G domain

The laminin alpha4 chain is widely distributed in various mesodermal tissues, including the perineurium of peripheral nerves, dorsal root ganglion (DRG), skeletal muscle, and capillaries, and plays important roles in synaptic specialization at the neuromuscular junction and in microvascular formation. The C-terminal globular domain (G domain) of the laminin alpha4 chain was previously found to be critical for heparin binding and cell attachment activity. Here, we focused on neurite outgrowth activity of the laminin alpha4 chain G domain. We found that the recombinant alpha4 chain G domain protein (rec-alpha4G) promoted neurite outgrowth of rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. When 114 overlapping synthetic peptides that covered the entire G domain were tested for neurite outgrowth activity, nine peptides were active, but the 105 remaining peptides did not exhibit activity. Three of the nine active peptides, A4G6 (LAIKNDNLVYVY), A4G20 (DVISLYNFKHIY), and A4G107 (VIRDSNVVQLDV), strongly promoted neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells. A4G107 was found to form amyloid-like fibrils in Congo red, X-ray, and electron microscopy analyses. We also synthesized cyclic peptides to evaluate their conformational requirements. Cyclic peptide A4G82X (cyc-A4G82X;TLFLAHGRLVFX, where X is norleucine) significantly enhanced neurite outgrowth activity, but the rest of the cyclic peptides eliminated the activity. The A4G82 sequence is located on the loop region, suggesting that the activity of A4G82 is required for a loop conformation. These peptides also exhibited neurite outgrowth activity with dorsal root ganglion (DRG) explants and with DRG cells from E14.5 mouse embryos, indicating that they are active in both neuronal cell lines and native neuronal cells. Taken together, the data suggest that the peptides from the laminin alpha4 chain G domain promote neurite outgrowth activity via a specific conformation.     

Laminin A chain synthetic peptide which supports neurite outgrowth

Neurons from peripheral and central nervous tissue as well as from established cell lines respond to low concentrations of laminin with rapid extension of axon-like processes. Two sites on laminin have been identified which stimulate neurite outgrowth, the major site residing at the end of the long arm of laminin. Recently laminin has been cloned and sequenced allowing for synthetic peptides to be prepared and tested for biological activity. We report here that antisera against synthetic peptides corresponding to A and to B1 chain sequences at the end of the long arm can partially inhibit laminin-mediated neurite outgrowth. Further, we show that a 19 amino acid synthetic peptide (CSRARKQAASIKVAVSADR) from the long arm of the laminin A chain is capable of stimulating neuronal-like process formation to almost the same extent as laminin and competes with laminin for stimulation of neurite outgrowth.