Temperate phages and bacteriocins of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae

A collection of 30 independently isolated strains of Cytophaga johnsonae was screened for the presence of temperate bacteriophages. Two strains were found to harbour phages. The newly isolated phages differ in several respects from the 43 previously isolated phages for C. johnsonae. Both phages are polyhedral, approximately 60 nm in diameter, and have no apparent tail structure. They are chloroform sensitive, and plaque formation is inhibited by agar. Both are capable of establishing a stable association with host cells. Twenty-nine of the 30 strains produced diffusible substances that specifically inhibited the growth of other C. johnsonae strains or closely related species and that could not be propagated. These substances appear to be bacteriocins, some of which, like bacteriophages, are active only against motile cells, while other inhibit nonmotile as well as motile cells. One of each of these two types of bacteriocins was partially characterized and both were found to be proteinaceous in nature and bactericidal in effect.     

Surface-induced synthesis of new sulfonolipids in the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae

Many simple gliding bacteria contain significant quantities of phosphate-free, sulfur-containing lipids (sulfonolipids; N-acylamino-3-hydroxyisoheptadecane-1-sulfonic acids, or N-acyl capnines) that recently were shown to function in the ability of Cytophaga johnsonae to migrate over solid surfaces. Reported here is the synthesis, by surface-grown Cytophaga johnsonae cells, of two additional sulfonolipids not present in cells grown in liquid media. These newly characterized sulfonolipids are more polar than the N-acylcapnines characteristic of liquid grown cells. Acid methanolysis of the sulfonolipids revealed that the aminosulfonate capnine was common to all, thus indicating that the chemical differences in the compounds resided in their N-fatty acyl groups, and not in the aminosulfonate moiety. Instead of the non-hydroxy and 3-hydroxy fatty acyl moieties present in sulfonolipids of liquid-grown cells, one new sulfonolipid contained a 2-hydroxy, branched C₁₅ fatty acid, while the other contained a 2,3-dihydroxy, isobranched C₁₆ fatty acid, as indicated by gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analyses. Although the structure of sulfonolipids thus varies between surface- and liquid-grown cells, no difference was found between the total quantity of sulfonolipids present under either of these conditions. The surface-dependent synthesis of these more polar N-acyl-aminosulfonates ceased immediately when surface-grown populations were suspended in broth. The ability of Cytophaga johnsonae to synthesize these compounds in response to a solid surface may be significant in relation to the organism's ability to migrate over such surfaces; it is one of few instances where a physical interaction of the cell surface has been shown to influence the molecular composition of a prokaryote.Abbreviations LTY tryptone yeast extract medium - TLC thin layer chromatography - FAME fatty acid methyl ester - ECL equivalent chain length - T _r retention time - TMS trimethylsilyl - TFA trifluoroacetyl     

Sulfonolipids are localized in the outer membrane of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae

Earlier work in our laboratory demonstrated that gliding bacteria of the Cytophaga-Flexibacter group contain, in their cell envelopes, large quantities of unusual sulfonolipids (N-fatty acyl 2-amino-3-hydroxyisoheptadecane-1-sulfonic acids). Recently, it has been shown that these lipids are necessary for the gliding motility of C. johnsonae. As one approach to determining the role of the lipids in motility, methods have now been developed for separating the inner (cytoplasmic) and outer membranes of a strain (ATCC 43786) of this Gram-negative bacterium. Sulfonolipid is at least five times as abundant in the outer membrane as in the inner. The inner membrane has properties similar to those found for other Gram-negative bacteria; it has a buoyant density of 1.14 g/ml and is highly enriched in cytochromes and succinate dehydrogenase. The outer membrane (1.18 g/ml) is enriched in bound carbohydrate and sulfonolipid, but contains little or no 2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate (such as is found in the enterobacteria). The localization of the sulfonolipids in the outer membrane permits focus on the possible roles these unusual substances may play in gliding motility.Abbreviations used IM inner membrane - OM outer membrane - KDO 2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate - EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid - SDH succinate dehydrogenase     

Structural specificity of sugars that inhibit gliding motility of Cytophaga johnsonae

It is a common observation that gliding bacteria form raised, smooth-edged colonies on nutrient-rich media, and typical thin, spreading, uneven-edged colonies on nutrient-poor media. An earlier study of the effect of different sugars on colony spreading by Cytophaga johnsonae was expanded to include the effects of several sugars and other organic compounds on the motility of groups of cells (rafts), and latex bead movement on cells' surfaces. When the structures of those sugars that did, or did not, affect raft formation and colony spreading were compared, it was noted that those sugars that inhibited these two manifestations of gliding motility all possessed a common sub-structure, that found in the portion of glucopyranose comprising carbons 3, 4, 5, and 6. If these structural features were altered chemically or stereochemically, the resulting molecule had little to no effect on motility. The differential effects of some compounds on raft formation, colony spreading, and bead movement are noted. A regulatory mechanism that would turn off motility in the presence of an inhibitory sugar is implicated, and the relevance of such a system to the life of the organism is discussed. We report, as well, additional compounds that will serve as carbon and energy sources for C. johnsonae.     

Biosynthesis of the sulfonolipid 2-amino-3-hydroxy-15-methylhexadecane-1-sulfonic acid in the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae

The biosynthesis of the sulfonolipid 2-amino-3-hydroxy-15-methylhexadecane-1-sulfonic acid (capnine) was studied by measuring the incorporation of possible precursors into the lipid by cells grown in the presence of precursors which were labeled with stable isotopes. Cells grown on yeast extract in the presence of DL-[3,3-2H2]serine contained 40.1 mol% of the protein-bound serine and 5.0 mol% of the protein-bound cysteine derived from the labeled serine. Cells grown in the presence of DL-[3,3-2H2]cystine acid contained 86.4 mol% of the molecules that had two deuteriums. These results are consistent with the possibility that biosynthesis of capnine occurs by the condensation of 13-methylmyristoyl-coenzyme A with cysteic acid, in a reaction analogous to the condensation of a palmitoyl-coenzyme A with serine to form 3-keto-sphinganine during the biosynthesis of sphingolipids.     

Genome sequence of the cellulolytic gliding bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii

The complete DNA sequence of the aerobic cellulolytic soil bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii, which belongs to the phylum Bacteroidetes, is presented. The genome consists of a single, circular, 4.43-Mb chromosome containing 3,790 open reading frames, 1,986 of which have been assigned a tentative function. Two of the most striking characteristics of C. hutchinsonii are its rapid gliding motility over surfaces and its contact-dependent digestion of crystalline cellulose. The mechanism of C. hutchinsonii motility is not known, but its genome contains homologs for each of the gld genes that are required for gliding of the distantly related bacteroidete Flavobacterium johnsoniae. Cytophaga-Flavobacterium gliding appears to be novel and does not involve well-studied motility organelles such as flagella or type IV pili. Many genes thought to encode proteins involved in cellulose utilization were identified. These include candidate endo-beta-1,4-glucanases and beta-glucosidases. Surprisingly, obvious homologs of known cellobiohydrolases were not detected. Since such enzymes are needed for efficient cellulose digestion by well-studied cellulolytic bacteria, C. hutchinsonii either has novel cellobiohydrolases or has an unusual method of cellulose utilization. Genes encoding proteins with cohesin domains, which are characteristic of cellulosomes, were absent, but many proteins predicted to be involved in polysaccharide utilization had putative D5 domains, which are thought to be involved in anchoring proteins to the cell surface.     

Defects in gliding motility in mutants of Cytophaga johnsonae lacking a high-molecular-weight cell surface polysaccharide.

We previously observed (W. Godchaux, L. Gorski, and E.R. Leadbetter, J. Bacteriol. 172:1250-1255, 1990) that two mutants (strains 21 and NS-1) of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae that were totally deficient in motility-dependent colony spreading, movement of rafts (groups) of cells as observed with a microscope, and movement of polystyrene-latex spheres that attached to the cell surface (observed in wet mounts) were also deficient in a high-molecular-weight cell surface polysaccharide (HMPS) and suggested a role for that substance in gliding motility. Antisera have been prepared against the purified HMPS, and these were used to select mutants specifically and highly deficient in the polysaccharide. All five such mutants had rates of colony spreading and raft movement that were much lower than those of the parent strain, but the rate of increase in colony diameter was higher than that found for strains NS-1 and 21 (which do not undergo raft movement at all). Unlike these latter two strains, the HMPS mutants retained the ability to move polystyrene-latex spheres over their surfaces. Hence, HMPS deficiency results in defective motility but not nonmotility, and the HMPS deficiency cannot fully explain the phenotype of mutants 21 and NS-1; in these strains, gliding must be affected by additional biochemical lesions. The HMPS may, nonetheless, be advantageous in that it supports greater gliding speeds.     

Cytophaga xylanolytica sp. nov., a xylan-degrading,anaerobic gliding bacterium

Gliding bacteria attached in masses to, and dominated the fermentation of, xylan powder in methanogenic and sulfidogenic enrichments from various freshwater sediments. Isolates of such bacteria were all gram-negative, slender rods (0.4×4-24 m) that formed no endospores, microcysts or fruiting bodies. Representative strain XM3 was a mesophilic, aeroduric anaerobe that grew by fermentation of mono-, di-, and poly-saccharides (but not cellulose) in a mineral medium containing up to 3% NaCl. However, CO₂/HCO _inf3 ^sup- was required in media for consistent initiation of growth. Fermentation products included acetate, propionate, succinate, CO₂, and H₂. Xylan-grown cells had xylanase and various glycosidase activities that were mainly or almost entirely cell-associated, respectively. Strain XM3 was weakly catalase positive, but oxidase negative; it possessed sulphonolipids and carotenoid, but not flexirubin, pigments; and its total cellular fatty acids were dominated by C_15:0 anteiso (75%), n (13%) and iso (2%) isomers. Strain XM3 had 45.5 mol% G+C in its DNA, and partial sequencing of its 16S rRNA placed XM3 within the Bacteroides-Flavobacterium phylogenetic group. Similar strains were isolated from marine sediments. Strain XM3 is herewith proposed as the type strain of the new species, Cytophaga xylanolytica. Results, which are discussed in terms of our current concept of the genus Cytophaga, suggest that the importance of C. xylanolytica in anaerobic biopolymer decomposition has not been fully appreciated.Dedicated to Professor Norbert Pfennig, in whose laboratory this project was initiated and who recently retired after more than four decades of contributions to microbiology     

Use of nonmotile mutants to identify a set of membrane proteins related to gliding motility in Cytophaga johnsonae.

Nonmotile mutants of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae were examined to identify proteins that might be involved in gliding motility. Wild-type and mutant cell proteins were solubilized and fractionated by using Triton X-114, and the proteins that partitioned into the aqueous phase or the detergent phase were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for proteins that differed between wild-type and mutant cells. Seventeen proteins, ranging in size from 16 to 150 kilodaltons, were implicated by this technique as having some relationship to gliding and were designated Gld-1 through Gld-17. All Gld proteins behaved as integral membrane proteins, partitioning into the detergent phase. All 56 mutants examined exhibited changes in 1 or more of the Gld proteins, with the number of proteins altered in any mutant varying from 1 to 11. Several lines of evidence suggested that proteins Gld-12 through Gld-15 are glycoproteins. Analysis of banding patterns of detergent-fraction proteins of motile revertants supported the idea that the Gld proteins have a role in gliding motility.     

Protein content of peptidoglycan of liquid-grown cells differs from that of surface-grown,gliding Cytophaga johnsonae

The peptidoglycan sacculi of surface-grown Cytophaga johnsonae had associated with them a large amoutn of protein (the major species is 50 kDa) whereas sacculi from liquid-grown cells had little or no attached protein. The 50 kDa protein was localized in the outer membrane of liquid-grown cells. A portion of this membrane-derived 50 kDa protein was attached to the peptidoglycan only when the cells made contact with the substratum. Protein synthesis did not appear to be required for attachment as the process was not inhibited by chloramphenicol. Association of the 50 kDa protein with the peptidoglycan in response to cell contact with the substratum is suggested.     

Regulation of sulfate assimilation in Cytophaga johnsonae

We have studied the regulation of sulfate assimilation by the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae in which 20% of the total sulfur is in the sulfornate moiety of sulfonolipid. Added cystine inhibited sulfate uptake and growth with cystine as sulfur source resulted in a repression of sulfate uptake. However, low concentrations of cystine preferentially repressed the terminal reactions of sulfate assimilation responsible for cysteine synthesis while allowing the transport and activation of sulfate for sulfonolipid synthesis. The significance of this novel pattern of regulation in bacteria is discussed.     

Long-Term Changes in Chemostat Cultures of Cytophaga johnsonae

Long-term studies with a gliding, heterotrophic bacterium, Cytophaga johnsonae, were conducted in a glucose-limited chemostat at a high and a low dilution rate. To test the stability of the steady state during long-term experiments the following parameters were monitored: optical density, glucose concentration, glucose uptake potential, ATP content of the cells, and plate counts on two different agar media. Biomass remained relatively constant, although the observed changes could have been possible in both directions. During all steady states, glucose uptake showed a stepwise increase and the glucose concentration showed a corresponding decrease. Glucose uptake potential and glucose concentration in the chemostat were inversely proportional. The ATP content of the cells varied up to 33% during the steady state, but did not show a general trend. After long cultivation in all chemostats, plate counts on both agars dropped to values less than 20% of the original steady-state level. These decreases were due to an inability of the cells to grow on agar plates, not to a lack of vitality of the cells in the chemostat. This study showed that even during shorter chemostat runs, e.g., 1 week, changes in important parameters with the steady state must be expected, especially in the uptake potential and the concentration of the limiting substrate.     

Accumulation of zinc and cadmium by Cytophaga johnsonae

Passive and active accumulation of zinc and cadmium by a common soil and freshwater bacterium, Cytophaga johnsonae, was studied using a radio-tracer batch distribution technique. The effects of variation of pH (3–10), as well as of ionic strength (0.007 and 0.07 m) on passive accumulation of the metals were examined. For both zinc and cadmium, accumulation was mainly due to passive processes, such as surface adsorption and/or diffusion into the periplasm. However, at low zinc concentrations, accumulation increased when glucose was added, suggesting an active uptake; at higher zinc concentrations such uptake was not detected, probably because it was masked by the stronger sorption properties of the cell wall. Adsorption of the metals was pH dependent: at higher ionic strength, accumulation was enhanced at pH values above 7; at lower ionic strength, adsorption differed and was markedly higher, with increased accumulation between pH 5 and 8.     

Outer membrane polysaccharide deficiency in two nongliding mutants of Cytophaga johnsonae.

Phenol-extractable polysaccharides firmly associated with the outer membrane of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae could be resolved by gel filtration in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis into a high-molecular-weight (H) fraction (excluded by Sephadex G-200) and a low-molecular-weight (L) fraction. Fraction L was rich in components typical of lipid A and the core region of lipopolysaccharide (P, 3-hydroxy fatty acids, and 2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate) and evidently was a lipopolysaccharide with a limited number of distal, repeating polysaccharide units, as judged by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In relation to total carbohydrate, the H fraction was rich in amino sugar but poor in (possibly devoid of) the lipid A and core components. Two nongliding mutants were highly deficient in the H fraction; one of these was deficient in sulfonolipid but could be cured by provision of a specific sulfonolipid precursor, a process that also resulted in the return of both the H fraction and gliding, as well as the ability to move polystyrene latex spheres over the cell surface. Hence, the polysaccharide may be the component that is directly involved in motility, and the presence of sulfonolipids in the outer membrane is necessary for the synthesis or accumulation of the polysaccharide. This conclusion was reinforced by the fact that the second nongliding, polysaccharide-deficient mutant had a normal sulfonolipid content.     

Phages for the gliding bacteriumCytophaga johnsonae that infect only motile cells

Twenty-eight phages active againstCytophaga johnsonae have been isolated and placed into 16 groups based on phage size and morphology and on host range studies using a variety of mutants derived fromC. johnsonae. Several lines of evidence support the idea that these phages infect only actively motile cells: (i) many mutants selected for resistance to one phage are nonmotile and are resistant to all phages, (ii) nonmotile mutants, selected for their inability to spread on plates, are resistant to all phages, (iii) when nonmotile mutants revert to the motile condition, they regain sensitivity to some or all phages, and (iv) carbony-cyanidem-chlorophenylhydrazone inhibits motility and prevents adsorption of a test phage.     

Surface proteins of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga sp. strain U67 and its mutants defective in adhesion and motility.

Surface proteins of the gliding bacterium Cytophaga sp. strain U67 that make contact with glass substrata were radioiodinated, using a substratum-immobilized catalyst (Iodo-Gen). At least 15 polypeptides were iodinated, fewer than the number labeled by surface biotinylation of whole cells; these polypeptides define the set of possible candidates for the surface protein(s) that mediates gliding-associated substratum adhesion. The labeling of three adhesion-defective mutants exhibited two characteristic patterns of surface iodination which involved addition, loss, or alteration of several polypeptides of high molecular weight. An adhesion-competent revertant of mutant Adh3 and one of Adh2 exhibited the wild-type labeling pattern. Two other Adh2 revertants resembled their adhesion-defective parent. The labeling pattern of surface polypeptides of a nongliding but adhesive cell strain was similar to that of the wild type.     

Glucose uptake of Cytophaga johnsonae studied in batch and chemostat culture

The influence of different physiological states on the glucose uptake and mineralization by Cytophaga johnsonae, a freshwater isolate, was examined in batch and chemostat cultures. At different growth rates under glucose limitation in chemostat cultures, different uptake patterns for ¹⁴C labeled glucose were observed. In batch culture and at high growth rates the glucose uptake potential showed a higher maximum velocity and a much lower substrate affinity than at lower growth rates. These findings and the results of short-term labeling patterns could be explained by two different glucose uptake mechanisms which enable the strain to grow efficiently both at high and low substrate concentrations. Substrate specificity studies showed that a structural change of the C-2 atom of the glucose molecule was tolerated by both systems. The consequences of these results for the ecophysiological classification of the Cytophaga group and for the operation of continuous cultures are discussed.     

Properties of Cytophaga johnsonae strains causing spoilage of fresh produce at food markets.

Two strains of gliding, orange-pigmented bacteria, isolated from fresh bell pepper and watermelon, respectively, showing soft-rot lesions, were identified as Cytophaga johnsonae. They differed from seven type strains of C. johnsonae deposited at the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) in some properties, such as the ability to utilize glucose, xylose, trehalose, rhamnose, and sucrose. Spherical bodies resembling microcysts of Sporocytophaga sp. in addition to short rods and long filaments were observed in two strains (ATCC 29583 and 29588) throughout the growth cycle and also in aged cultures of other strains. All strains examined were shown to degrade five natural or synthetic polymers (pectin, chitin, starch, protein, and carboxymethyl cellulose). Only six strains (including ATCC 17061, 29587, 29589, and 19366) were able to infect and macerate artificially wounded potato tubers and fruits of pepper, squash, and tomato. The pathogenic strains secreted more pectate lyase in broth medium than the nonpathogenic strains. C. johnsonae, generally known as a soil saprophyte, might occasionally act as an opportunistic pathogen, causing decay of fresh produce in storage or in transit.     

Lipoamino acids and sulfonoplipids in Cytophaga johnsonae Stanier strain C21 and six related species of Cytophaga

Cytophaga johnsonae Stanier strain C21 (C. johnsonae C21) contains phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), an unusual glycine-containing lipid (glycine lipid), and two kinds of unidentified lipid as major lipid components. One of the latter lipids was identified by chemical and physicochemical methods as iso-3-hydroxy fatty acid, -amide linked to ornithine and esterified to iso-nonhydroxy fatty acid (ornithine lipid). The other lipid was identified as a sulfonolipid by a tracer experiment using ³⁵S. PE, glycine lipid and sulfonolipid were found in all seven species of Cytophage examined, namely, C. huchinsonii, C. heparina, C. johnsonae C21, C. aquatilis, and three unidentified species of Cytophaga. However, ornithine lipid was found only in the latter five species. By contrast, a serine-containing lipid, which is a specific lipid component of Flavobacterium species, was not found in any species of Cytophaga examined. The possible use and significance of amino acid-containing lipids and sulfonolipids as chemosystematic markers of the Cytophaga species are discussed.     

Temporal sequence of the recovery of traits during phenotypic curing of a Cytophaga johnsonae motility mutant.

The lack of cell translocation and the resulting formation of nonspreading colonies of mutants of the gram-negative gliding bacterium Cytophaga johnsonae have been correlated with the loss of cell surface features of the organism. These cell surface traits include the ability to move polystyrene-latex beads over the cell surface and the ability to be infected by bacteriophages that infect the parent strain. In order to assess whether these traits reflect structures or functions that actually play a role in gliding, we studied a mutant (21A2I) selected for its inability to form spreading colonies; it is deficient in sulfonolipid, lacks bead movement ability, and is resistant to at least one bacteriophage. The provision of cysteate (a specific sulfonolipid precursor) restores lipid content and gliding to the mutant; hence, the lipids are necessary for motility. Growth with cysteate also restores bead movement and phage sensitivity. In order to determine the temporal relationship of these traits, we undertook a kinetic study of the appearance of them after addition of cysteate to the mutant. One predicts that appearance of a trait essential for cell translocation will either precede or accompany the appearance of this ability, while a nonessential trait need not do so. Sulfonolipid synthesis was the only trait that appeared before gliding; this is consistent with its established importance for motility. Bead movement and phage sensitivity first appeared only after gliding started, suggesting that the machinery involved in those processes is not necessary, at least for the initiation of gliding.