Study of the Effect of Different Techniques on Diversity of Freshwater Hyphomycetes in the River Nile (Upper Egypt)

Four different techniques were applied, lead mapping of Eucalptus rostrata; randomly leaf sampling; Millipore filtration; spores in foam, for the study of aquatic hyphomycets communities in the River Nile. Triscelophorus monlosporus, Anguilospora longissima, Flagellospora curvula and Tetracladium marchalianum were the dominant species in all the techniques used. Aquatic hyphomycetes diversity was high by using leaf mapping (23 species) and randomly leaf sampling (30 species) but it was low by using Millipore filtration (11 species) and spores in foam (8 species) techniques.     

Effects of fruit‐baited trap height on flower and leaf chafer scarab beetles sampling in Amazon rainforest

There is no standardization of ideal trap installation height for an accurate sampling of flower and leaf chafer scarab beetles in the rainforest canopy. This limits the comparison among different studies on the ecology as well as systematic collecting of this beetle group. Here, we sampled flower and leaf chafer beetles using fruit‐baited traps installed at different heights (1.5, 4.5, 7.5 and 10.5 m) in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest with the following proposals: (i) we tested whether there are effects of trap installation height on the abundance, species richness and biomass of these beetles; and (ii) we tested whether there is a difference in the species composition between each trap height. From January to April 2017, we sampled flower and leaf chafer beetles by using traps baited with a banana and sugarcane juice mixture in Amazon rainforest fragments in Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil. The abundance, species richness and biomass of flower chafer beetles (Cetoniinae) were higher in traps installed at 10.5 m. For leaf chafer beetles (Rutelinae), we found the higher species richness and abundance at 4.5, 7.5 and 10.5 m, but the biomass of these insects did not differ among the different heights. Only the community composition of flower chafer beetles differed among the different trap installation heights. Our results showed that flower chafer beetles demonstrate a preference for foraging for resources at greater heights in the Amazon rainforest. Thus, to collect cetoniines from tropical forests, the recommended manner is to install the traps in the forest canopy.     

Laboratory conditions can change the complexity and composition of the natural aquatic mycobiome on Alnus glutinosa leaf litter

Community structure is of major interest when aquatic fungi are studied, particularly in leaf decomposition experiments. Although such studies are often conducted as laboratory experiments with microbial communities taken from the field, it remains unclear to what extent natural fungal communities can be sustained under experimental conditions. Here, we used DNA metabarcoding to investigate the development of fungal communities on alder leaves both under laboratory and field conditions. Five leaf conditioning treatments were compared by colonizing leaves in a stream, exposing stream colonized leaves to a defined medium or filtered stream water and using stream colonized leaves to inoculate sterile leaves in the defined medium or stream water. Fewer species were found on leaves that were inoculated under laboratory conditions, whereas differences in fungal community composition were comparably low in the other treatments, irrespective of the chosen medium. Possible shifts in fungal communities should therefore be considered in laboratory experiments.     

Temporal variability in the diversity and composition of stream bacterioplankton communities

Bacterioplankton in freshwater streams play a critical role in stream nutrient cycling. Despite their ecological importance, the temporal variability in the structure of stream bacterioplankton communities remains understudied. We investigated the composition and temporal variability of stream bacterial communities and the influence of physicochemical parameters on these communities. We used barcoded pyrosequencing to survey bacterial communities in 107 streamwater samples collected from four locations in the Colorado Rocky Mountains from September 2008 to November 2009. The four sampled locations harboured distinct communities yet, at each sampling location, there was pronounced temporal variability in both community composition and alpha diversity levels. These temporal shifts in bacterioplankton community structure were not seasonal; rather, their diversity and composition appeared to be driven by intermittent changes in various streamwater biogeochemical conditions. Bacterial communities varied independently of time, as indicated by the observation that communities in samples collected close together in time were no more similar than those collected months apart. The temporal turnover in community composition was higher than observed in most previously studied microbial, plant or animal communities, highlighting the importance of stochastic processes and disturbance events in structuring these communities over time. Detailed temporal sampling is important if the objective is to monitor microbial community dynamics in pulsed ecosystems like streams.     

The spatial scaling of saprotrophic fungal beta diversity in decomposing leaves

Assembly of fungal communities remains poorly understood in part because of the daunting range of spatial scales that may be involved in this process. Here, we use individual leaves as a natural sampling unit, comprising spatially distinct habitat and/or resource patches with unique histories and suites of resources. Spatial patterns in fungal beta diversity were tested for consistency with the metacommunity paradigms of species sorting and neutral dynamics. Thirty senesced leaves were collected from the forest floor (O horizon) in replicate upland forest, riparian forest and vernal pool habitats. We quantified spatial distance between leaves, and fungal community composition was assayed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism. Significant distance‐decay relationships were detected at all but one upland site. This is the first study where changes in fungal community composition were quantified across discrete adjacent habitat patches, providing evidence that fungal distance decay is operational at a scale of centimetres. Although leaves of differing lignin contents were sampled from each site, leaf type was not consistently important in explaining variation in fungal community composition. However, depth of a leaf within the forest floor significantly influenced community composition at five of six sites. Environmental heterogeneity associated with depth could include moisture gradients, relative influence of soil or spore colonization, and impact of forest floor biotic community (i.e. collembola and earthworms). Because the influence of spatial distance and depth on fungal community composition could not be disentangled, both species‐sorting and neutral processes may be embedded within the distance‐decay relationships that we found.     

Evaluation of double-decker traps for emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Improved detection tools are needed for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), an invasive forest insect from Asia that has killed millions of ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees in North America since its discovery in Michigan in 2002. We evaluated attraction of adult A. planipennis to artificial traps incorporating visual (e.g., height, color, silhouette) and olfactory cues (e.g., host volatiles) at field sites in Michigan. We developed a double-decker trap consisting of a 3-m-tall polyvinyl pipe with two purple prisms attached near the top. In 2006, we compared A. planipennis attraction to double-decker traps baited with various combinations of manuka oil (containing sesquiterpenes present in ash bark), a blend of four ash leaf volatiles (leaf blend), and a rough texture to simulate bark. Significantly more A. planipennis were captured per trap when traps without the rough texture were baited with the leaf blend and manuka oil lures than on traps with texture and manuka oil but no leaf blend. In 2007, we also tested single prism traps set 1.5 m above ground and tower traps, similar to double-decker traps but 6 m tall. Double-decker traps baited with the leaf blend and manuka oil, with or without the addition of ash leaf and bark extracts, captured significantly more A. planipennis than similarly baited single prism traps, tower traps, or unbaited double-decker traps. A baited double-decker trap captured A. planipennis at a field site that was not previously known to be infested, representing the first detection event using artificial traps and lures. In 2008, we compared purple or green double-decker traps, single prisms suspended 3-5 m above ground in the ash canopy (canopy traps), and large flat purple traps (billboard traps). Significantly more A. planipennis were captured in purple versus green traps, baited traps versus unbaited traps, and double-decker versus canopy traps, whereas billboard traps were intermediate. At sites with very low A. planipennis densities, more A. planipennis were captured on baited double-decker traps than on other traps and a higher percentage of the baited double-decker traps captured beetles than any other trap design. In all 3 yr, peak A. planipennis activity occurred during late June to mid-July, corresponding to 800-1200 growing degree-days base 10 degrees C (DD10). Nearly all (95%) beetles were captured by the end of July at approximately 1400 DD10.     

3 using odor-baited trap trees as sentinels to monitor plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in apple orchards

In commercial orchards in Massachusetts in 2003, we conducted experiments aimed at developing guidelines for use of perimeter-row trap trees baited with grandisoic acid plus benzaldehyde as sentinels in a practical approach to determining need and timing of insecticide applications against overwintered plum curculios, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst). Evaluations were based on percentages of sampled fruit injured by plum curculio. Trap trees baited with grandisoic acid released at approximately 1 mg/d plus benzaldehyde released at approximately 40 mg/d performed as well as or better than trap trees baited with greater or lesser amounts of these attractants in combination. The distance over which a trap tree baited with such odor was effective in aggregating damage to fruit extended to at least 31-33 m (maximum evaluated) along a perimeter row. Trap trees at corners of orchard blocks were as effective as perimeter-row trap trees midway between corner trees. Within the canopy of a trap tree, damage did not tend significantly to be localized in the vicinity of the odor source but tended to be rather evenly distributed among various sectors of the canopy. Finally, among three candidate thresholds evaluated as a trigger for insecticide application, a threshold of one freshly injured fruit proved better than thresholds of two or four freshly injured fruit out of 50 fruit sampled on a trap tree in assuring that orchard-wide damage would remain below a preset economic injury level of 1%. Our findings lead us to suggest that after a whole-orchard application of insecticide to apple trees in Massachusetts orchards shortly after petal fall, subsequent applications of insecticide against plum curculio can be confined to peripheral-row trees and be driven by a provisional threshold of one freshly injured fruit out of 50 fruit sampled on a perimeter-row trap tree baited with the above-mentioned odor.     

Seasonal response of stream biofilm communities to dissolved organic matter and nutrient enrichments

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) and inorganic nutrients may affect microbial communities in streams, but little is known about the impact of these factors on specific taxa within bacterial assemblages in biofilms. In this study, nutrient diffusing artificial substrates were used to examine bacterial responses to DOM (i.e., glucose, leaf leachate, and algal exudates) and inorganic nutrients (nitrate and phosphate singly and in combination). Artificial substrates were deployed for five seasons, from summer 2002 to summer 2003, in a northeastern Ohio stream. Differences were observed in the responses of bacterial taxa examined to various DOM and inorganic nutrient treatments, and the response patterns varied seasonally, indicating that resources that limit the bacterial communities change over time. Overall, the greatest responses were to labile, low-molecular-weight DOM (i.e., glucose) at times when chlorophyll a concentrations were low due to scouring during significant storm events. Different types of DOM and inorganic nutrients induced various responses among bacterial taxa in the biofilms examined, and these responses would not have been apparent if they were examined at the community level or if seasonal changes were not taken into account.     

Baiting improves CPUE in nine‐spined stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) minnow trap fishery

Whether or not baiting influences stickleback catch per unit effort (CPUE) remains a matter of debate among stickleback researchers: While the opinions about the impact of baiting on CPUE differ, supporting quantitative data are scarce. The effect of baiting and trap type on nine‐spined stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) CPUE was studied in a field experiment conducted over four consecutive days in a small pond in northeastern Finland. The results show that baited traps yielded better (mean CPUE = 1.24 fish/trap/d) catches than unbaited traps (mean CPUE = 0.66); however, there were also differences in CPUE depending on the type of collapsible trap that was used. The trap type effect on CPUE seemed to differ among age classes – the finer meshed trap caught more young‐of‐the‐year fish than the coarse‐meshed one, whereas the opposite was true for the older and larger individuals. The results agree with those of an earlier more restricted study conducted in the same locality: Together, these results provide strong evidence for the positive impact of baiting on nine‐spined stickleback CPUE.     

Detection of and monitoring for Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in suburban and sylvatic habitats in north central Florida using four sampling techniques

A sampling study using a BG-Sentinel trap baited with CO(2), a gravid trap baited with an oak-pine infusion, a human subject, and a vegetative aspirator was conducted to compare their reliability at detecting Aedes albopictus Skuse in suburban and sylvatic habitats. We collected 73,849 mosquitoes, representing 29 species from 11 genera over a 20-wk period. The BG-Sentinel trap accounted for over 85% of all Ae. albopictus captured and was significantly more effective at detecting the presence of Ae. albopictus compared with the other three techniques. Landing counts provided the fewest mosquito species (n = 10), yet provided a quick and effective weekly assessment of the major biting species and were the most effective method for sampling Ae. albopictus within a 10-min period. Fewer Ae. albopictus were sampled from sylvatic habitats compared with suburban ones. Sampling criteria advantageous for surveying Ae. albopictus and other mosquito species are discussed.     

Fox‐baiting in agricultural landscapes in south‐eastern Australia: a case‐study appraisal and suggestions for improvement

Summary In south‐eastern Australia, the introduced Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a major predator of native wildlife and livestock. Fox control in agricultural landscapes is heavily reliant on the laying of poisoned baits by private landholders, yet there have been few assessments of the application or success of landholder‐baiting practices. We evaluated a community‐based fox‐baiting campaign, typical of programs employed throughout the agricultural regions of south‐eastern Australia to control foxes. We recorded the spatial coverage of 1080 baits deployed by landholders, assessed baiting procedures, monitored the survival of six radio‐collared foxes during and after baiting, and compared the spatial coverage and likely effectiveness of the baiting program with two alternative (theoretical) baiting strategies. Relative to other baiting programs, coordination among neighbours was reasonably high, with 37.5% of baited properties (n = 40) adjoining ≥3 neighbouring properties that also contained baits. Nevertheless, the maximum distance from the centre of a baited property to the nearest edge of an unbaited property was <750 m (mean = 380 m ± 147 m SD). On average, 33% (±17% SD) of each fox’s home range overlapped with baited properties, but only two foxes died during the baiting program. The remaining four foxes were still alive 10 weeks after baiting ceased. Modelling of simulated fox home ranges showed that 13.5% contained no bait stations based on the community baiting program, whereas alternative roadside‐ and grid‐baiting strategies (theoretically) delivered baits to all simulated home ranges. Some landholders employed practices that could reduce the effectiveness of baiting programs such as not removing decayed baits before deploying new ones or placing bait stations too close together. Our research illustrates the difficulties of managing a coordinated baiting program on private land that effectively controls foxes. Alternative baiting strategies such as roadside baiting need to be considered to improve fox control in agricultural landscapes.     

Ecology of leaf pack macroinvertebrate communities in streams of the Fraser River Basin, British Columbia

1. To characterise geographic and small scale variation in the structure of macroinvertebrate communities in stream leaf packs, we collected one to three natural leaf pack communities from 119 reference streams in the Fraser River Basin and quantified their variability and correlation with aspects of the stream environment at several scales. We also sampled leaf packs in 19 test streams in the same geographic area exposed to stressors (nine logged, seven farmed, three mined catchments) to evaluate the leaf pack community as a tool for bioassessment. 2. There was substantial variation in the composition of invertebrate communities in leaf packs among reference streams of the Fraser River Basin. Capnia and Zapada (stoneflies), Baetis and Ephemerella (mayflies) and Tvetnia (midge) were the most common taxa found in the leaf packs. There were three types of assemblages identified by non‐metric multidimensional scaling; Capnia, Baetis and Ephemerella communities. 3. Leaf pack communities from the 19 test streams were plotted on a non‐metric multidimensional scaling ordination of the reference communities, and 14 of 19 sites fell outside the 80% confidence ellipse of the reference sites, including eight of nine logged, four of seven farmed and one of three mined catchments. Most of these streams plotted on the ordination near the Ephemerella reference communities. Reference stream communities had a similar number of genera per leaf pack (12.0) and genera per site (18.7) as the test streams (12.6 genera per leaf pack and 18.7 genera per site). Among the test sites, the farmed catchments had higher genera per leaf pack (17.8) and genera per site (21.9) than either the logged (11.5 genera per leaf pack; 19.9 genera per site) or mined (3.4 genera per leaf pack; 7.7 genera per site) catchments. 4. Heterogeneity of leaf pack communities within a site decreased as the number of genera found at the site increased. This was determined by allometric regression of the number of genera found at a site on the maximum number of genera possible, given the average number found per leaf pack. 5. There was a significant relationship between the composition of the leaf pack invertebrate community and stream geography (latitude, longitude, altitude, stream order). Canonical correspondence analysis showed differences among ‘big river’, ‘mountain stream’ and ‘southern’ communities. 6. There was no relationship between the composition of the leaf pack invertebrate community and stream channel and flow characteristics (bank dimensions, flow, slope). There was a significant relationship between the composition of the leaf pack invertebrate community and water quality of the stream (oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, conductivity, pH, temperature). ‘Cold, oxygen rich water’ communities were distinguishable from communities in streams with warmer, lower oxygen concentration. ‘High nutrient water’ communities were also distinct from communities in low nutrient streams. There was no relationship between the composition of the leaf pack invertebrate community and the nature of the leaf pack itself (i.e. morphology, decomposition, coniferous needle content). 7. Invertebrate communities in leaf packs show substantial, interpretable variation among reference streams. They are sensitive to human stressors at a landscape scale such as forestry and agriculture. Their diversity and composition varies at different spatial scales in a way that is at least partially explained by the environment of the stream and its catchment area.     

Quantifying responses of dung beetles to fire disturbance in tropical forests: the importance of trapping method and seasonality

Understanding how biodiversity responds to environmental changes is essential to provide the evidence-base that underpins conservation initiatives. The present study provides a standardized comparison between unbaited flight intercept traps (FIT) and baited pitfall traps (BPT) for sampling dung beetles. We examine the effectiveness of the two to assess fire disturbance effects and how trap performance is affected by seasonality. The study was carried out in a transitional forest between Cerrado (Brazilian Savanna) and Amazon Forest. Dung beetles were collected during one wet and one dry sampling season. The two methods sampled different portions of the local beetle assemblage. Both FIT and BPT were sensitive to fire disturbance during the wet season, but only BPT detected community differences during the dry season. Both traps showed similar correlation with environmental factors. Our results indicate that seasonality had a stronger effect than trap type, with BPT more effective and robust under low population numbers, and FIT more sensitive to fine scale heterogeneity patterns. This study shows the strengths and weaknesses of two commonly used methodologies for sampling dung beetles in tropical forests, as well as highlighting the importance of seasonality in shaping the results obtained by both sampling strategies.     

Seasonal Response of Stream Biofilm Communities to Dissolved Organic Matter and Nutrient Enrichments

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) and inorganic nutrients may affect microbial communities in streams, but little is known about the impact of these factors on specific taxa within bacterial assemblages in biofilms. In this study, nutrient diffusing artificial substrates were used to examine bacterial responses to DOM (i.e., glucose, leaf leachate, and algal exudates) and inorganic nutrients (nitrate and phosphate singly and in combination). Artificial substrates were deployed for five seasons, from summer 2002 to summer 2003, in a northeastern Ohio stream. Differences were observed in the responses of bacterial taxa examined to various DOM and inorganic nutrient treatments, and the response patterns varied seasonally, indicating that resources that limit the bacterial communities change over time. Overall, the greatest responses were to labile, low-molecular-weight DOM (i.e., glucose) at times when chlorophyll a concentrations were low due to scouring during significant storm events. Different types of DOM and inorganic nutrients induced various responses among bacterial taxa in the biofilms examined, and these responses would not have been apparent if they were examined at the community level or if seasonal changes were not taken into account.     

Bacterial Succession on the Leaf Surface: A Novel System for Studying Successional Dynamics

Succession is a widely studied process in plant and animal systems, but succession in microbial communities has received relatively little attention despite the ubiquity of microorganisms in natural habitats. One important microbial habitat is the phyllosphere, or leaf surface, which harbors large, diverse populations of bacteria and offers unique opportunities for the study of succession and temporal community assembly patterns. To explore bacterial community successional patterns, we sampled phyllosphere communities on cottonwood (Populus deltoides) trees multiple times across the growing season, from leaf emergence to leaf fall. Bacterial community composition was highly variable throughout the growing season; leaves sampled as little as a week apart were found to harbor significantly different communities, and the temporal variability on a given tree exceeded the variability in community composition between individual trees sampled on a given day. The bacterial communities clearly clustered into early-, mid-, and late-season clusters, with early- and late-season communities being more similar to each other than to the mid-season communities, and these patterns appeared consistent from year to year. Although we observed clear and predictable changes in bacterial community composition during the course of the growing season, changes in phyllosphere bacterial diversity were less predictable. We examined the species–time relationship, a measure of species turnover rate, and found that the relationship was fundamentally similar to that observed in plant and invertebrate communities, just on a shorter time scale. The temporal dynamics we observed suggest that although phyllosphere bacterial communities have high levels of phylogenetic diversity and rapid turnover rates, these communities follow predictable successional patterns from season to season.     

Spatial structuring of bacterial communities within individual Ginkgo biloba trees

Plant‐associated microorganisms affect the health of their hosts in diverse ways, yet the distribution of these organisms within individual plants remains poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we assessed the spatial variability in bacterial community diversity and composition found on and in aboveground tissues of individual Ginkgo biloba trees. We sampled bacterial communities from > 100 locations per tree, including leaf, branch and trunk samples and used high‐throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to determine the diversity and composition of these communities. Bacterial community structure differed strongly between bark and leaf samples, with bark samples harbouring much greater bacterial diversity and a community composition distinct from leaves. Within sample types, we observed clear spatial patterns in bacterial diversity and community composition that corresponded to the samples' proximity to the exterior of the tree. The composition of the bacterial communities found on trees is highly variable, but this variability is predictable and dependent on sampling location. Moreover, this work highlights the importance of carefully considering plant spatial structure when characterizing the microbial communities associated with plants and their impacts on plant hosts.     

Influences on the structure of suburban ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) communities and the abundance of Tapinoma sessile

Urbanization can alter the organization of ant communities and affect populations of urban pest ants. In this study, we sampled ant communities in urban and suburban yards to understand the habitat factors that shape these communities and influence the abundance of a common pest species, Tapinoma sessile (Say). We used pitfall traps to sample ant communities and a combination of pitfall traps and baiting to collect T. sessile at 24 sites in Knoxville, TN. In total, we collected 46 ant species. Ant species richness ranged from seven to 24 species per yard. Ant species richness tended to be lowest near houses, whereas T. sessile abundance was highest near houses. The best predictors of ant species richness in yards were canopy cover and presence of leaf litter: ant species richness peaked at mid-levels of canopy cover and was negatively correlated with the presence of leaf litter. Tapinoma sessile abundance increased with presence of logs, boards, or landscaping timbers and leaf litter in yards. Our results indicate that ant communities and the abundance of particular pest species in these urban and suburban landscapes are shaped by many of the same factors that structure ant communities in less anthropogenically disturbed environments.     

Evaluation of seasonal dynamics of fungal DNA assemblages in a flow-regulated stream in a restored forest using eDNA metabarcoding

Investigation of seasonal variation in fungal communities is essential for understanding biodiversity and ecosystem functions. However, the conventional sampling method, with substrate removal and high spatial heterogeneity of community composition, makes surveying the seasonality of fungal communities challenging. Recently, water environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis has been explored for its utility in biodiversity surveys. In this study, we assessed whether the seasonality of fungal communities can be detected by monitoring eDNA in a forest stream. We conducted monthly water sampling in a forest stream over 2 years and used DNA metabarcoding to identify fungal eDNA. The stream water contained DNA from functionally diverse aquatic and terrestrial fungi, such as plant decomposers, parasites and mutualists. The variation in the fungal assemblage showed a regular annual periodicity, meaning that the assemblages in a given season were similar, irrespective of the year or sampling. Furthermore, the strength of the annual periodicity varied among functional groups. Our results suggest that forest streams may act as a ‘trap’ for terrestrial fungal DNA derived from different habitats, allowing the analysis of fungal DNA in stream water to provide information about the temporal variation in fungal communities in both the aquatic and the surrounding terrestrial ecosystems.     

Use of Protozoan Communities to Predict Environmental Effects of Pollutants1

ABSTRACT. This study compared the response of protozoan communities colonizing artificial substrates to complex effluents in laboratory microecosystems and validated laboratory predictions using similar sampling methods in the field. Sampling stations were established on a small stream receiving heavy metal and sewage treatment plant effluents. Water from each station was used as a test medium to test the colonization of polyurethane foam artificial substrates in laboratory microecosystems. The heterotrophic index (HI), the ratio of total community biomass to chlorophyll biomass, was also measured. Field colonization trials and HI determinations were carried out at each sampling station. There was a strong negative relationship between the number of species colonizing artificial substrates and the total metal concentration of the water at each station; protozoan colonization was severely depressed at the highest metal concentrations (>400 μg/liter) and recovered at downstream stations where dilution had taken place. The HI differentiated stations receiving high heavy metal concentrations in the field from those recovering from heavy metal influences. Effect concentrations based on laboratory experiments predicted that the concentration of total heavy metal that would produce a 5% decrease in species number (EC5) was 18 μg/liter, approximately the background concentration found in the stream studied. These experiments demonstrated that laboratory microecosystems or microcosms can be used to predict effects in the field accurately.