Energy recovery from lipid extracted,transesterified and glycerol codigested microalgae biomass

The production of methane (CH₄) via the anaerobic digestion of microalgae biomass residues from the biodiesel production process has the potential to meet some of the energy requirements of the primary biomass to fuel conversion process. This paper investigates the practical CH₄ yields achievable from the anaerobic conversion of the microalgae residues (as well as codigestion with glycerol) after biodiesel production using both the conventional and in situ transesterification methods. Results demonstrate that the type of lipid extraction solvent utilized in the conventional transesterification process could inhibit subsequent CH₄ production. On the basis of actual CH₄ production, a recoverable energy of 8.7–10.5 MJ kg^?1 of dry microalgae biomass residue was obtained using the lipid extracted and transesterified microalgae samples. On codigesting the microalgae residues with glycerol, a 4–7% increase in CH₄ production was observed.     

Influence of inoculum to substrate ratios (ISRs) on the performance of anaerobic digestion of algal residues

With increasing concerns of microalgal-biodiesel, algal residues after lipid extraction are raising great attention for energy production. A batch test of 15 days under mesophilic condition was conducted to evaluate the effects of inoculum to substrate ratios (ISRs) on the methane production by anaerobic digestion of Chlorella sp. residue. The stability and progress of the reaction from algal residue to methane were monitored by measuring the pH, volatile fatty acids (VFAs), total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN), methane volume on a daily basis. The results indicated that the values obtained were 26.6, 191.6, 195.6 and 210.6 ml CH₄/g volatile solid (VS) for ISRs of 1:2, 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1. The methane production was significantly decreased as the ISR was lower than 1:1, which was resulting from the poor methanogenesis inhibited by NH₄ ⁺-N. It would be of great importance that determination of ISRs might provide useful information on how to initialize a batch digester with algal residue as material.     

Life-cycle assessment of microalgae culture coupled to biogas production

Due to resource depletion and climate change, lipid-based algal biofuel has been pointed out as an interesting alternative because of the high productivity of algae per hectare and per year and its ability to recycle CO₂ from flue gas. Another option for taking advantage of the energy content of the microalgae is to directly carry out anaerobic digestion of raw algae in order to produce methane and recycle nutrients (N, P and K). In this study, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of biogas production from the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris is performed and the results are compared to algal biodiesel and to first generation biodiesels. These results suggest that the impacts generated by the production of methane from microalgae are strongly correlated with the electric consumption. Progresses can be achieved by decreasing the mixing costs and circulation between different production steps, or by improving the efficiency of the anaerobic process under controlled conditions. This new bioenergy generating process strongly competes with others biofuel productions.     

Anaerobic digestion of microalgae as a necessary step to make microalgal biodiesel sustainable

The potential of microalgae as a source of biofuels and as a technological solution for CO₂ fixation is subject to intense academic and industrial research. In the perspective of setting up massive cultures, the management of large quantities of residual biomass and the high amounts of fertilizers must be considered. Anaerobic digestion is a key process that can solve this waste issue as well as the economical and energetic balance of such a promising technology. Indeed, the conversion of algal biomass after lipid extraction into methane is a process that can recover more energy than the energy from the cell lipids. Three main bottlenecks are identified to digest microalgae. First, the biodegradability of microalgae can be low depending on both the biochemical composition and the nature of the cell wall. Then, the high cellular protein content results in ammonia release which can lead to potential toxicity. Finally, the presence of sodium for marine species can also affect the digester performance. Physico-chemical pretreatment, co-digestion, or control of gross composition are strategies that can significantly and efficiently increase the conversion yield of the algal organic matter into methane. When the cell lipid content does not exceed 40%, anaerobic digestion of the whole biomass appears to be the optimal strategy on an energy balance basis, for the energetic recovery of cell biomass. Lastly, the ability of these CO₂ consuming microalgae to purify biogas and concentrate methane is discussed.     

Microalgae potential as a biogas source: current status,restraints and future trends

In recent years, the world energy demands have had a recurrent increase. For this reason the alternative to the fossil fuel resources are trend topics in investigation. Microalgae have been extensively studied as a source of biofuels and as one of the most promising alternatives in this new framework. One of the possibilities of obtaining renewable energy from microalgae is biogas production using anaerobic digestion process. This process is considered a significant component for biofuels and waste management, since represent an opportunity for energy generation using different wastewater products; also, the economic viability of microalgae liquid biofuel production could be improved. However, the anaerobic digestion of microalgae biomass is still not optimized because of the numerous technical limitations such as the microalgae characteristics, low carbon:nitrogen ratio, ammonia toxicity and even salinity. The present review summarizes and compares information concerning to anaerobic digestion of microalgal biomass and future directions for research. Besides, specific operational factors and potential inhibitory parameters of the process are analyzed and compared. Additionally, the paper covers the state or art concerning in methane production enhancement from algal biomass.     

Modeling anaerobic digestion of microalgae using ADM1

The coupling between a microalgal pond and an anaerobic digester is a promising alternative for sustainable energy production by transforming carbon dioxide into methane using solar energy. In this paper, we demonstrate the ability of the original ADM1 model and a modified version (based on Contois kinetics for the hydrolysis steps) to represent microalgae anaerobic digestion. Simulations were compared to experimental data of an anaerobic digester fed with Chlorella vulgaris. The modified ADM1 fits adequately the data for the considered 140 day experiment encompassing a variety of influent load and flow rates. It turns out to be a reliable predictive tool for optimising the coupling of microalgae with anaerobic digestion processes.     

Anaerobic co-digestion of algal sludge and waste paper to produce methane

The unbalanced nutrients of algal sludge (low C/N ratio) were regarded as an important limitation factor to anaerobic digestion process. Adding high carbon content of waste paper in algal sludge feedstock to have a balanced C/N ratio was undertaken in this study. The results showed adding 50% (based on volatile solid) of waste paper in algal sludge feedstock increased the methane production rate to 1170+/-75 ml/l day, as compared to 573+/-28 ml/l day of algal sludge digestion alone, both operated at 4 g VS/l day, 35 degrees C and 10 days HRT. The maximum methane production rate of 1607+/-17 ml/l day was observed at a combined 5 g VS/l day loading rate with 60% (VS based) of paper adding in algal sludge feedstock. Results suggested an optimum C/N ratio for co-digestion of algal sludge and waste paper was in the range of 20-25/1.     

Anaerobic digestion of microalgal biomass with ultrasonic disintegration

The use of photosynthetic microalgae for nutrient removal and biofuel production has been widely discussed. Anaerobic digestion of waste microalgal biomass to produce biogas is a promising technology for bioenergy production. However, the methane yield from this anaerobic process was limited because of the hard cell wall of Chlorella vulgaris. The use of ultrasound has proven to be successful at improving the disintegration and anaerobic biodegradability of Chlorella vulgaris. Ultrasonic pretreatment in the range of 5–200 J ml⁻¹ was applied to waste microalgal biomass, which was then used for batch digestion. Ultrasound techniques were successful and showed higher soluble COD at higher applied energy. During batch digestion, cell disintegration due to ultrasound increased in terms of specific biogas production and the degradation rate. Compared to the untreated sample, the specific biogas production was increased in the ultrasound-treated sample by 90% at an energy dose of 200 J ml⁻¹. For the disintegrated samples, volatile solids reduction was also increased according to the energy input and degradation. These results indicate that the hydrolysis of microalgal cells is the rate-limiting step in the anaerobic digestion of microalgal biomass.     

Steam pressure disruption of municipal solid waste enhances anaerobic digestion kinetics and biogas yield.

Biomass waste, including municipal solid waste (MSW), contains lignocellulosic-containing fiber components that are not readily available as substrates for anaerobic digestion due to the physical shielding of cellulose imparted by the nondigestible lignin. Consequently, a substantial portion of the potentially available carbon is not converted to methane and the incompletely digested residues from anaerobic digestion generally require additional processing prior to their return to the environment. We investigated and developed steam pressure disruption as a treatment step to render lignocellulosic-rich biomass more digestible and as a means for increasing methane energy recovery. The rapid depressurization after steam heating (240 degrees C, 5 min.) of the nondigested residues following a 30-day primary digestion of MSW caused a visible disruption of fibers and release of soluble organic components. The disrupted material, after reinoculation, provided a rapid burst in methane production at rates double those observed in the initial digestion. This secondary digestion proceeded without a lag phase in gas production, provided approximately 40% additional methane yields, and was accompanied by a approximately 40% increase in volatile solids reduction. The secondary digestate was found to be enriched in lignin and significantly depleted in cellulose and hemi-cellulose components when compared to primary digestate. Thus, steam pressure disruption treatment rendered lignocellulosic substrates readily accessible to anaerobic digestion bacteria and improved both the kinetics of biogas production and the overall methane yield from MSW. Steam pressure disruption is central to a new anaerobic digestion process approach including sequential digestion stages and integrated energy recovery, to improve process yields, provide cogenerated energy for process needs, and to provide effective reuse and recycling of waste biomass materials.     

Mass balance and life cycle assessment of biodiesel from microalgae incorporated with nutrient recycling options and technology uncertainties

This article presents mass balances and a detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) for energy and greenhouse gases (GHGs) of a simulated microalgae biodiesel production system. Key parameters of the system include biomass productivity of 16 and 25 g m^?2 day^?1 and lipid content of algae of 40% and 25% for low and normal nitrogen conditions respectively. Based on an oil extraction efficiency from wet biomass of 73.6% and methane yields from anaerobically digested lipid‐extracted biomass of 0.31 to 0.34 l per gram of volatile solids, the mass balance shows that recycling growth media and recovering nutrients from residual biomass through anaerobic digestion can reduce the total demand for nitrogen by 66% and phosphorus by 90%. Freshwater requirements can be reduced by 89% by recirculating growth media, and carbon requirements reduced by 40% by recycling CO₂ from biogas combustion, for normal nitrogen conditions. A variety of technology options for each step of the production process and allocation methods for coproducts used outside the production system are evaluated using LCA. Extensive sensitivity and scenario analysis is also performed to provide better understanding of uncertainty associated with results. The best performing scenario consists of normal nitrogen cultivation conditions, bioflocculation and dissolved air flotation for harvesting, centrifugation for dewatering, wet extraction with hexane, transesterification for biodiesel production, and anaerobic digestion of biomass residual, which generates biogas used in a combined heat and power unit for energy recovery. This combination of technologies and operating conditions results in life cycle energy requirements and GHG emissions of 1.02 MJ and 71 g CO₂‐equivalent per MJ of biodiesel, with cultivation and oil extraction dominating energy use and emissions. Thus, even under optimistic conditions, the near‐term performance of this biofuel pathway does not achieve the significant reductions in life cycle GHG emissions hoped for from second‐generation biofuel feedstocks.     

Anaerobic Co-digestion of Swine Manure and Microalgae <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chlorella</Emphasis> sp.: Experimental Studies and Energy Analysis

Integration of algae production with livestock waste management has the potential to recover energy and nutrients from animal manure, while reducing discharges of organic matter, pathogens, and nutrients to the environment. In this study, microalgae Chlorella sp. were grown on centrate from anaerobically digested swine manure. The algae were harvested for mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) with swine manure for bioenergy production. Low biogas yields were observed in batch AD studies with algae alone, or when algae were co-digested with swine manure at ≥43 % algae (based on volatile solids [VS]). However, co-digestion of 6–16 % algae with swine manure produced similar biogas yields as digestion of swine manure alone. An average methane yield of 190 mL/g VS_fed was achieved in long-term semi-continuous co-digestion studies with 10?±?3 % algae with swine manure. Data from the experimental studies were used in an energy analysis assuming the process was scaled up to a concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) with 7000 pigs with integrated algae-based treatment of centrate and co-digestion of manure and the harvested algae. The average net energy production for the system was estimated at 1027 kWh per day. A mass balance indicated that 58 % of nitrogen (N) and 98 % of phosphorus (P) in the system were removed in the biosolids. A major advantage of the proposed process is the reduction in nutrient discharges compared with AD of swine waste without algae production.     

Production and characterization of β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger fermentation: Application for organic fraction of municipal solid waste hydrolysis and methane enhancement

The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) is currently an attractive treatment process with energy production in the form of biogas. Hydrolysis is the rate-limiting step for the anaerobic digestion of solid wastes. Thus, in the present study fungal enzymatic pretreatment of OFMSW was applied to enhance biogas production. Two enzyme cocktails rich on β-glucosidase were produced from submerged fermentation of Aspergillus niger on basal medium using OFMSW as carbon source and urea (Urea cocktail) and Ulva rigida as nitrogen source (Ulva cocktail). Ulva cocktail displayed an important effect on OFMSW solubilization. Therefore, an increase of reducing sugar concentration about 60% was obtained which was in correlation with chemical oxygen demand (COD) increase. The performance of enzymatic pretreatment on anaerobic digestion of OFMSW was studied by conducting biochemical methane potential tests. Results showed that the enzymatic pretreatment improved methane yield of OFMSW even at high solid concentration. High methane yield about 500 ml/g total volatile solid was obtained, which corresponds up to 68% enhancement over the control.     

Analysis of the performance of an anaerobic digestion system at the Regina Wastewater Treatment Plant

From the performance analysis of the anaerobic digestion system at the Regina Wastewater Treatment Plant, it was found that the anaerobic digestion system at the Regina plant was generally operated in a stable condition as indicated by pH, volatile acids and alkalinity levels. The operation of the anaerobic digestion system was not optimal because of the low volatile solids concentration and low volatile solids loading rate, especially because of high HRT. Two options, thickening the primary sludge and increasing the volatile solids loading rate, were recommended for the optimal operation of the digestion system. After examining a number of kinetic models, it was found that the Chen-Hashimoto model could be used to predict the volumetric methane production rate and the first-order model could be used to predict the efficiency of volatile solids reduction. The study showed that utilization of digester gas for power production was the best alternative for the excess digester gas. 13.3% of the electrical demand and 35.5% of the plant's total energy could be met based on digester gas wasted, assuming 25% as the conversion efficiency.     

Biohydrogen and methane production by co-digestion of cassava stillage and excess sludge under thermophilic condition

Thermophilic anaerobic hydrogen and methane production by co-digestion of cassava stillage (CS) and excess sludge (ES) was investigated in this study. The improved hydrogen and subsequent methane production were observed by co-digestion of CS with certain amount of ES in batch experiments. Compared with one phase anaerobic digestion, two phase anaerobic digestion offered an attractive alternative with more abundant biogas production and energy yield, e.g., the total energy yield in two phase obtained at VS_CS/VS_ES of 3:1 was 25% higher than the value of one phase. Results from continuous experiments further demonstrated that VS_CS/VS_ES of 3:1 was optimal for hydrogen production with the highest hydrogen yield of 74 mL/g total VS added, the balanced nutrient condition with C/N ratio of 1.5 g carbohydrate-COD/g protein-COD or 11.9 g C/g N might be the main reason for such enhancement. VS_CS/VS_ES of 3:1 was also optimal for continuous methane production considering the higher methane yield of 350 mL/g total VS added and the lower propionate concentration in the effluent.     

Strategies to enhance production of microalgal biomass and lipids for biofuel feedstock

ABSTRACT

Microalgae have enormous potential as feedstock for biofuel production compared with other sources, due to their high areal productivity, relatively low environmental impact, and low impact on food security. However, high production costs are the major limitation for commercialization of algal biofuels. Strategies to maximize biomass and lipid production are crucial for improving the economics of using microalgae for biofuels. Selection of suitable algal strains, preferably from indigenous habitats, and further improvement of those ‘platform strains’ using mutagenesis and genetic engineering approaches are desirable. Conventional approaches to improve biomass and lipid productivity of microalgae mainly involve manipulation of nutritional (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) and environmental (e.g. temperature, light and salinity) factors. Approaches such as the addition of phytohormones, genetic and metabolic engineering, and co-cultivation of microalgae with yeasts and bacteria are more recent strategies to enhance biomass and lipid productivity of microalgae. Improvement in culture systems and the use of a hybrid system (i.e. a combination of open ponds and photobioreactors) is another strategy to optimize algal biomass and lipid production. In addition, the use of low-cost substrates such as agri-industrial wastewater for the cultivation of microalgae will be a smart strategy to reduce production costs. Such systems not only generate high algal biomass and lipid productivity, but are also useful for bioremediation of wastewater and bioremoval of waste CO₂. The aim of this review is to highlight the advances in the use of various strategies to enhance production of algal biomass and lipids for biofuel feedstock.     

Phycoremediation coupled production of algal biomass,harvesting and anaerobic digestion: Possibilities and challenges

Biogas produced from anaerobic digestion is a versatile and environment friendly fuel which traditionally utilizes cattle dung as the substrate. In the recent years, owing to its high content of biodegradable compounds, algal biomass has emerged as a potential feedstock for biogas production. Moreover, the ability of algae to treat wastewater and fix CO₂ from waste gas streams makes it an environmental friendly and economically feasible feedstock. The present review focuses on the possibility of utilizing wastewater as the nutrient and waste gases as the CO₂ source for algal biomass production and subsequent biogas generation. Studies describing the various harvesting methods of algal biomass as well as its anaerobic digestion have been compiled and discussed. Studies targeting the most recent advancements on biogas enrichment by algae have been discussed. Apart from highlighting the various advantages of utilizing algal biomass for biogas production, limitations of the process such as cell wall resistivity towards digestion and inhibitions caused due to ammonia toxicity and the possible strategies for overcoming the same have been reviewed. The studies compiled in the present review indicate that if the challenges posed in translating the lab scale studies on phycoremediation and biogas production to pilot scale are overcome, algal biogas could become the sustainable and economically feasible source of renewable energy.     

Feasibility study of the anaerobic digestion of dewatered pig slurry by means of polyacrylamide

Liquid livestock waste can be managed by separating liquid and solid fractions then treating each separately by applying best available technology, such as anaerobic digestion for the solid fraction. There is an increasing use of polyacrylamide (PAM) as a flocculant agent to improve solid-liquid separation. In the present work, the anaerobic toxicity of PAM residues and the optimal range of total solids concentration for maximum methane production were studied as a function of PAM dosage. Results showed that dry matter and its volatile solids content increased significantly with increasing PAM dosage. Batch anaerobic tests showed that methane yield decreased linearly with increasing total solids, while the methane production per unit of raw substrate reached a maximum at 16.4% total solids. No PAM toxicity was measured for PAM concentrations below 415 g/kg total solids, but some indirect inhibitory phenomena were observed, such as a limited hydrolysis rate due to particle aggregation, and inhibition of methanogenesis by high ammonia concentration.     

Biochemical methane potential (BMP) test for thickened sludge using anaerobic granular sludge at different inoculum/substrate ratios

The biochemical methane potential (BMP) test for thickened sludge was evaluated at three different inoculum/substrate (I:S) ratios. The cumulative methane yield was 51.4 mL CH₄/g VS_added at an I:S ratio of 1:1, 76.3 mL CH₄/g VS_added at an I:S ratio of 1:3, and 21.9 mL CH₄/g VS_added at an I:S ratio of 1:8. The greatest ultimate methane yield and methane production rate constant were achieved at an I:S ratio of 1:3, whereas the least was obtained at an I:S ratio of 1:8. The maximum methane production rate constant was 0.38/day and the minimum methane production rate constant was 0.0016/day. For the case of a lower I:S ratio, the biomass activity may be affected due to the low substrate concentration. On the other hand, for the case of higher I:S ratios, anaerobic digestion of thickened sludge was inhibited by higher concentrations of volatile fatty acids and lower pH.     

Feasibility of biogas production from anaerobic co-digestion of herbal-extraction residues with swine manure

The objective of this work was to examine the feasibility of biogas production from the anaerobic co-digestion of herbal-extraction residues with swine manure. Batch and semi-continuous experiments were carried out under mesophilic anaerobic conditions. Batch experiments revealed that the highest specific biogas yield was 294 mL CH₄ g⁻¹ volatile solids added, obtained at 50% of herbal-extraction residues and 3.50 g volatile solids g⁻¹ mixed liquor suspended solids. Specific methane yield from swine manure alone was 207 mL CH₄ g⁻¹ volatile solid added d⁻¹ at 3.50 g volatile solids g⁻¹ mixed liquor suspended solids. Furthermore, specific methane yields were 162, 180 and 220 mL CH₄ g⁻¹ volatile solids added d⁻¹ for the reactors co-digesting mixtures with 10%, 25% and 50% herbal-extraction residues, respectively. These results suggested that biogas production could be enhanced efficiently by the anaerobic co-digestion of herbal-extraction residues with swine manure.     

Methods of energy extraction from microalgal biomass: a review

The potential of algal biomass as a source of liquid and gaseous biofuels is a highly topical theme, The process operations for algal biofuel production can be grouped into three areas: growth, harvesting and energy extraction, with a wide range of combinations of unit operations that can form a microalgal biofuel production system, but as yet there is no successful economically viable commercial system producing biofuel. This suggests that there are major technical and engineering difficulties to be resolved before economic algal biofuel production can be achieved. This article briefly reviews the methods by which useful energy may be extracted from microalgae biomass: (a) direct combustion, (b) pyrolysis, (c) gasification, (d) liquefaction, (e) hydrogen production by biochemical processes in certain algae, (f) fuel cells, (g) fermentation to bioethanol, (h) trans-esterification to biodiesel, (i) anaerobic digestion.