Phylogenetic Diversity of the Sulfur Cycle Bacteria in the Bottom Sediments of the Chersonesus Bay

The Black Sea is the largest meromictic basin, in the bottom sediments of which a powerful biogenic process of sulfide production occurs. The goal of the present work was to obtain data on phylogenetic diversity of the sulfur cycle microorganisms (sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria) in the Black Sea coastal gas-saturated bottom sediments. The samples were collected in the Chersonesus (Blue) Bay near Sevastopol from whitish bacterial mats of sulfurettes, and from the upper layer of the nearby seabed. Using DNA isolated from the native samples and obtained enrichment cultures, PCR analysis was performed with oligonucleotide primers specific to the fragments of the 16S rRNA genes of the main subgroups of sulfatereducing bacteria (SRB) and to the fragments of the dsrB gene (both reductive and oxidative types), encoding the β-subunit of dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase, the key enzyme in the sulfur cycle, inherent in both sulfate- reducing and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms. The presence of 16S rRNA gene fragments specific to the genera Desulfobacterium, Desulfobacter, Desulfococcus–Desulfonema–Desulfosarcina, and Desulfovibrio–Desulfomicrobium was detected in the DNA samples isolated from coastal bottom bacterial mats. Usage of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) with subsequent sequencing of reamplified dsrB gene fragments revealed that according to deduced amino acid sequences encoded by the dsrB gene (reductive type), SRB from the coastal gas-saturated bottom sediments of the Black Sea had the highest homology (92?99%) with the dsrB gene of cultured SRB belonging to the genera Desulfovibrio, Desulfatitalea, Desulfobacter, and Desulfobacterium, as well as with uncultured SRB strains from various marine habitats, such as bottom sediments of the Northern and Japanese seas. Deduced amino acid sequences encoded by the oxidative dsrB gene had the highest homology (90?99%) with the relevant sequences of the genera Thiocapsa, Thiobaca, Thioflavicoccus, and Thiorhodococcus.     

Detection of anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria in oxygen-containing upper water layers of the Black and Baltic Seas

Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and PCR were used for analysis of phylogenetic structure of anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacterial communities in oxygen-containing upper water layers of meromictic basins: the Black Sea and the Gdansk Deep of the Baltic Sea. In the Black Sea (continental slope at depths 30–70 m), cells of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) hybridizing with 16S rRNA-specific FISH-probes for Desulfotomaculum, Desulfobacter, and Desulfovibrio genera were revealed, whereas Desulfomicrobium-related bacteria were prevalent in the chemocline zone at a 150-m depth. Besides Desulfotomaculum (SRB subgroup 1), Desulfobacter (SRB subgroup 4), and Desulfovibrio-Desulfomicrobium (SRB subgroup 6), nested PCR with the use of 16S rRNA gene-specific primers detected the presence of Desulfococcus–Desulfonema–Desulfosarcina (SRB subgroup 5) in the oxygen-containing water column of the Black and Baltic seas. Active enrichment SRB culture that contained bacterium Desulfosporosinus sp. as a major component was obtained from the Black Sea water sample collected at a 70-m depth.     

Improvement of desulfurizing activity of haloalkaliphilic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thialkalivibrio versutus</Emphasis> SOB306 with the expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitreoscilla</Emphasis> hemoglobin gene

Objective

To construct efficient transformation and expression system and further improve desulfurizing activity of cells through expression of Vitreoscilla hemoglobin (VHb) in haloalkaliphilic Thialkalivibrio versutus SOB306.

Results

We transferred plasmids pKT230 and pBBR-sm^r into T. versutus SOB306 via a conjugation method. We identified four promoters from among several predicted promoters by scoring for streptomycin resistance, and finally selected tac and p3 based on the efficiency of expression of red fluorescent protein (RFP). Expression of RFP when regulated by tac was more than three times that of p3 in SOB306. Further, we expressed VHb under the control of tac promoter in SOB306. Expression of VHb was verified using CO-difference spectra. The results showed that VHb expression can boost sulfur metabolism, as evidenced by an increase of about 11.7 ± 1.8% in the average rate of thiosulfate removal in the presence of VHb.

Conclusion

A conjugation transfer and an expression system for Thialkalivibrio, has been developed for the first time and used for expression of VHb to improve desulfurizing activity.

     

Sulfide-oxidizing bacteria establishment in an innovative microaerobic reactor with an internal silicone membrane for sulfur recovery from wastewater

A novel bioreactor, employing a silicone membrane for microaeration, was studied for partial sulfide oxidation to elemental sulfur. The objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of using an internal silicone membrane reactor (ISMR) to treat dissolved sulfide and to characterize its microbial community. The ISMR is an effective system to eliminate sulfide produced in anaerobic reactors. Sulfide removal efficiencies reached 96 % in a combined anaerobic/microaerobic reactor and significant sulfate production did not occur. The oxygen transfer was strongly influenced by air pressure and flow. Pyrosequencing analysis indicated various sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) affiliated to the species Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, Sulfuricurvum kujiense and Pseudomonas stutzeri attached to the membrane and also indicated similarity between the biomass deposited on the membrane wall and the biomass drawn from the material support, supported the establishment of SOB in an anaerobic sludge under microaerobic conditions. Furthermore, these results showed that the reactor configuration can develop SOB under microaerobic conditions and can improve and reestablish the sulfide conversion to elemental sulfur.     

Use of specific PCR primers for the study of sulfate-reducing bacteria diversity in microbial mats of Ebro Delta,Spain

Microbial mats are prokaryotic communities that provide model systems to analyze microbial diversity and ecophysiological interactions. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) play a key role in sulfur and nutrient recycling in these ecosystems. In this work, specific primers for 16S rRNA encoding gene, previously described, were used to study the diversity of SRB in microbial mats of the Ebro Delta. We confirm that this method is reliable to identify the diversity of SRB in these ecosystems. However, some mismatches in obtained sequences had been observed in our system and must be taken under consideration. Various genera of SRB in Ebro Delta microbial mats were identified, such as Desulfonema, Desulfatitalea, Desulfosalsimonas, Desulfoccocus, and Desulfovibrio. The diversity observed in our samples is very similar to previously reported in other microbial mats communities.     

Microbial community of sulfate-reducing up-flow sludge bed in the SANI<Superscript>®</Superscript> process for saline sewage treatment

This study investigated the microbial community of the sulfate-reducing up-flow sludge bed (SRUSB) of a novel sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification, and nitrification integrated (SANI®) process for saline sewage treatment. The investigation involved a lab-scale SANI® system treating synthetic saline sewage and a pilot-scale SANI® plant treating 10 m³/day of screened saline sewage. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were the dominant population, responsible for more than 80% of the chemical oxygen demand removal, and no methane-producing archaea were detected in both SRUSBs. Thermotogales-like bacteria were the dominant SRB in the pilot-scale SRUSB while Desulforhopalus-like bacteria were the major species in the lab-scale SRUSB.     

Alkaliphilic sulfidogenesis on cellulose by combined cultures

Soda lakes are characterized by an intense sulfur cycle that begins with sulfidogenesis. Model laboratory experiments that involved combining of pure cultures showed that, during anaerobic decomposition of cellulose by Clostridium alkalicellulosi, the sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) of the species Desulfonatronovibrio hydrogenovorans, Desulfonatronum lacustre, and Desulfonatronum cooperativum, different in their nutritional requirements, may directly use the cellulose fermentation products for sulfidogenesis without mediatory microorganisms. In binary cocultures with SRB, the amount of the H₂S formed constituted from one-third to two-thirds of the cellulose [H] equivalents; acetate was among the products formed. When the syntrophic Contubernalis alkalaceticum, capable of acetate oxidation, was incorporated into the trophic chain along with hydrogenotrophic SRB, the amount of the H₂S formed exceeded by 33–42% the amount of the [H] equivalents in the utilized cellulose, water being the source of additional hydrogen. Thus, the trophic pathway from plant residues to sulfide, previously considered to be the longest in the alkaliphilic microbial community, may involve a minimal number of stages and do without intermediate participation of dissipotrophic fermenting organisms.     

Earthworm Communities in the Bamboo Plantations of West Tripura (India)

Present study revealed the presence of 16 earthworm species belonging to 11 genera and four families viz. Megascolecidae (Amynthus alexandri, Metaphire houlleti, Lampito mauritii, Kanchuria sp1, Perionyx excavatus), Octochaetidae (Eutyphoeus gigas, Eutyphoeus comillahnus, Eutyphoeus orientalis, Octochaetona beatrix, Dichogaster bolaui, Lennogaster chittagongensis, Lennogaster yeicus), Moniligastridae (Drawida papillifer papillifer, Drawida assamensis, Drawida nepalensis) and Glossoscolecidae (Pontoscolex corethrurus) in the soils of five bamboo species [Bambusa balcooa (Sil Barak), Melocanna baccifera (Muli), Bambusa polumorpha (Bari), Bambus cacharensis (Bom) and Bambus bambus (Katabarak)] of West-Tripura. While four earthworm species viz. Metaphire houlleti, Drawida assamensis, Drawida papillifer papillifer and Pontoscolex corethrurus were common to all species of bamboo plantations, the rest showed restricted distribution. Among the earthworm species 4 were exotic (Amynthus alexandri, Metaphire houlleti, Dichogaster bolaui and Pontoscolex corethrurus) and the others were native to the Indian sub-continent. In general, earthworms under the bamboo plantations occurred within temperature range of 21.6 °C–28.0 °C, pH 4.0–7.0, organic matter 0.56–5.99 %, moisture 9.6–31.7 %, water holding capacity 14.6–43.9 % and bulk density 0.7–1.8 g cm^?3. The average density and biomass of the earthworms in the studied places were 108 ind m^?2 and 44 g m^?2 respectively. Earthworm diversity, dominance and evenness indices showed the values 1.00, 0.47 and 0.70 respectively. Earthworm density and biomass showed a negative correlation with temperature whereas those had a strong positive correlation with pH, moisture and organic matter of the soils.     

Phylogenetic and functional prokaryotic diversity in the Hoito-Gol mesothermal mineral spring (Eastern Sayan Mountains,Buryat Republic)

High-throughput sequencing was used for comparative analysis of microbial communities of the water and mat from the Hoito-Gol mesothermal mineral sulfide spring (Eastern Sayan Mountains, Buryat Republic). Activity of microbial communities was determined. While both spring biotopes were dominated by members of three bacterial phyla—Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes—they differed drastically in the composition of predominant phylotypes (at the genus level). In the water, the organisms widespread in aquatic environments were predominant, mostly aerobic chemoorganotrophs of the genera Acinetobacter, Pedobacter, and Flavobacterium. In the microbial mat, the organisms actively involved in the sulfur cycle predominated, including sulfur-reducing bacteria Sulfurospirillum, sulfate-reducing deltaproteobacteria, sulfuroxidizing chemoautotrophic bacteria, anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria of the phyla Chloroflexi and Chlorobi, as well as purple bacteria belonging to the α-, ß-, and γ-Proteobacteria. Microbial mats of the spring exhibited higher phylogenetic diversity compared to high-temperature mats containing photosynthetic microorganisms.     

Fingerprinting by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and barcoding by three plastidic markers in the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolffiella</Emphasis> Hegelm

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting and three different plastidic DNA regions (rpl16, rps16, atpF-atpH) were used to investigate species identity in the genus Wolffiella. For this purpose, clones (67 in total) belonging to all ten species were selected. Almost all the species were represented by more than one clone. The fingerprinting technique, AFLP, clearly distinguished the species, W. caudata, W. gladiata, W. neotropica, W. rotunda, and W. welwitschii. Apart from confirming the molecular identity of these five species, the plastidic markers could delineate two additional species, W. hyalina and W. denticulata, although the conclusion concerning the latter is restricted by the availability of only one clone. The efficiency of the plastid-derived markers in identifying the number of species-specific clusters followed the sequence rps16 > rpl16 > atpF-atpH. The species W. lingulata, W. oblonga, and W. repanda could not be identified by any of the molecular methods presented here, but could be strictly defined on a morphological basis. In several clones, high amounts of genetic admixtures between different species were detected. Further, simulation studies demonstrated that these clones are genetic hybrids. This might be one of the obstacles in molecular identification of species in the genus Wolffiella.     

Prokaryotic diversity in a Tunisian hypersaline lake,Chott El Jerid

Prokaryotic diversity was investigated in a Tunisian salt lake, Chott El Jerid, by quantitative real-time PCR, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) fingerprinting methods targeting the 16S rRNA gene and culture-dependent methods. Two different samples S1-10 and S2-10 were taken from under the salt crust of Chott El Jerid in the dry season. DGGE analysis revealed that bacterial sequences were related to Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, unclassified bacteria, and Deinococcus-Thermus phyla. Anaerobic fermentative and sulfate-reducing bacteria were also detected in this ecosystem. Within the domain archaea, all sequences were affiliated to Euryarchaeota phylum. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that 16S rRNA gene copy numbers of bacteria was 5 × 10⁶ DNA copies g^?1 whereas archaea varied between 5 × 10⁵ and 10⁶ DNA copies g^?1 in these samples. Eight anaerobic halophilic fermentative bacterial strains were isolated and affiliated with the species Halanaerobium alcaliphilum, Halanaerobium saccharolyticum, and Sporohalobacter salinus. These data showed an abundant and diverse microbial community detected in the hypersaline thalassohaline environment of Chott El Jerid.     

Composition and diversity of the bacterial community in snow leopard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Uncia uncia</Emphasis>) distal gut

Intestinal microflora influences many essential metabolic functions, and is receiving increasing attention from the scientific community. However, information on intestinal microbiota, especially for large wild carnivores, is insufficient. In the present study, the bacterial community in the feces of snow leopards (Uncia uncia) was described based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. A total of 339 near-full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences representing 46 non-redundant bacterial phylotypes (operational taxonomical units, OTUs) were identified in fecal samples from four healthy snow leopards. Four different bacterial phyla were identified: Firmicutes (56.5 %), Actinobacteria (17.5 %), Bacteroidetes (13 %), and Proteobacteria (13 %). The phylum Actinobacteria was the most abundant lineage, with 40.4 % of all identified clones, but Clostridiales, with 50 % of all OTUs, was the most diverse bacterial order. The order Clostridiales was affiliated with four families: Clostridiaceae I, Lachnospiraceae, Peptostreptococcaceae, and Ruminococcaceae. Lachnospiraceae was the most diverse family with 17 OTUs identified. These findings were basically consistent with previous reports on the bacterial diversity in feces from other mammals.     

Toxin Gene Contents and Activity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus thuringiensis</Emphasis> Strains Against Two Sugarcane Borer Species, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diatraea saccharalis</Emphasis> (F.) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">D. flavipennella</Emphasis> (Box)

Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) bears essential characteristics in the control of insect pests, such as its unique mode of action, which confers specificity and selectivity. This study assessed cry gene contents from Bt strains and their entomotoxicity against Diatraea saccharalis (F.) and Diatraea flavipennella (Box) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Bioassays with Bt strains were performed against neonates to evaluate their lethal and sublethal activities and were further analyzed by PCR, using primers to identify toxin genes. For D. saccharalis and D. flavipennella, 16 and 18 strains showed over 30% larval mortality in the 7th day, respectively. The LC₅₀ values of strains for D. saccharalis varied from 0.08 × 10⁵ (LIIT-0105) to 4104 × 10⁵ (LIIT-2707) spores + crystals mL^?1. For D. flavipennella, the LC₅₀ values of strains varied from 0.40 × 10⁵ (LIIT-2707) to 542 × 10⁵ (LIIT-2109) spores + crystals mL^?1. For the LIIT-0105 strain, which was the most toxic to D. saccharalis, the genes cry1Aa, cry1Ab, cry1Ac, cry1B, cry1C, cry1D, cry1F, cry1I, cry2Aa, cry2Ab, cry8, and cry9C were detected, whereas for the strain LIIT-2707, which was the most toxic to D. flavipennella, detected genes were cry1Aa, cry1Ab, cry1Ac, cry1B, cry1D, cry1F, cry1I, cry2Aa, cry2Ab, and cry9. The toxicity data and toxin gene content in these strains of Bt suggest a great variability of activity with potential to be used in the development of novel biopesticides or as source of resistance genes that can be expressed in plants to control pests.     

First study on characterization of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes in verotoxigenic and enterotoxigenic <Emphasis Type="Italic">E</Emphasis>. <Emphasis Type="Italic">coli</Emphasis> isolated from raw milk and unpasteurized traditional cheeses in Romania

The study focused on the incidence of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) and verotoxigenic E. coli (VTEC) in raw milk and traditional dairy cheeses marketed in Romania, characterizing the virulence and antibiotic resistance genes of these isolates. One hundred and twenty samples of raw milk and 80 samples of unpasteurized telemy cheese were collected and cultured according to the international standard protocol. All the characteristic E. coli cultures were analyzed for the presence of STa, STb, LT, stx1, and stx2 toxicity genes. The ETEC/VTEC strains were tested for the presence of antibiotic resistance genes, such as aadA1, tetA, tetB, tetC, tetG, dfrA1, qnrA, aaC, sul1, bla _SHV , bla _CMY , bla _TEM , and ere(A), using PCR. The results showed that 27 samples (18.62%) were positive for one of the virulence genes investigated. 48.1% (n = 13) tested positive at the genes encoding for tetracycline resistance, tetA being the most prevalent one (61.5%; n = 8). A high percent (33.3%; n = 9) revealed the beta-lactamase (bla _TEM ) resistance gene, and none of the samples tested positive for bla _CMY and bla _SHV genes. The genes responsible for resistance to sulfonamides (sul1) and trimethoprim (dfrA1) were detected in rates of 14.8% (n = 4) and 7.4% (n = 2), respectively. E. coli is highly prevalent in raw milk and unpasteurized cheeses marketed in Romania. These strains might represent an important reservoir of resistance genes which can easily spread into other European countries, given the unique market.     

Evaluation of ethanol production and bioadsorption of heavy metals by various red seaweeds

The objective of this study was to evaluate ethanol production and bioadsorption with four red seaweeds, Gelidium amansii, Gracilaria verrucosa, Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum. To produce ethanol, thermal acid hydrolysis, enzymatic saccharification and fermentation was carried out. After pretreatment, 38.5, 39.9, 31.0 and 27.5 g/L of monosaccharides were obtained from G. amansii, G. verrucosa, K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum, respectively. Ethanol fermentation was performed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae KCCM 1129 adapted to 80 g/L galactose. The ethanol productions by G. amansii, G. verrucosa, K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum were 18.8 g/L with Y _EtOH = 0.49, 19.1 g/L with Y _EtOH = 0.48, 14.5 g/L with Y _EtOH = 0.47 and 13.0 g/L with Y _EtOH = 0.47, respectively. The waste seaweed slurries after the ethanol fermentation were reused to adsorb Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cu(II). Using langmuir isotherm model, Cu(II) had the highest affinity for waste seaweeds with the highest q _max and electronegativity values among three heavy metals.     

Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Some Marine Fisheries Resources Collected from Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve,Southeast Coast of India

Concentrations of toxic metals viz. mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) were evaluated in four species of fishes (Sardinella longiceps, Selaroides leptolepis, Epinephelus quoyanus and Lethrinus lentjan), one species of shrimp (Penaeus semisulcatus) and one species of crab (Portunus sanguinolentus) sampled from Thoothukudi, Keelakarai and Veerapandian pattinam of Gulf of Mannar, Southeast coast of India. Results revealed accumulation of these metals in the following order Hg > Cd > Pb. Hg concentration was found to be higher in Po. sanguinolentus followed by E. quoyanus, Pe. semisulcatus and L. lentjan however, the same was absent in Sa. longiceps and Se. leptolepis. Cd concentration was recorded in decreasing order in Po. sanguinolentus > Pe. semisulcatus > L. lentjen > E. quoyanus > Sa. longiceps > Se. leptolepis. Pb was detectable only in four species. Results of One-way ANOVA revealed significant variations (p < 0.05) in accumulation of Cd in Sa. longiceps, Se. leptolepis and Pe. semisulcatus and Hg in E. quoyanus, L. lentjan and Po. sanguinolentus. Variations noted in Pb were not statistically significant throughout.     

Development and reproduction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amblyseius largoensis</Emphasis> (Acari: Phytoseiidae) feeding on pollen, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Raoiella indica</Emphasis> (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), and other microarthropods inhabiting coconuts in Florida,USA

The red palm mite, Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), is an important pest of palms (Arecaceae) and other species within the Zingiberaceae, Musaceae and Strelitziaceae families. Raoiella indica was discovered in the USA (Palm Beach and Broward counties, Florida) late in 2007, and it subsequently spread to other Florida counties. The predatory mite Amblyseius largoensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) has been found associated with R. indica in Florida. In order to verify whether A. largoensis can develop and reproduce when feeding exclusively on R. indica, the biology of this predator was evaluated on various food sources, including R. indica. Five diets [R. indica, Tetranychus gloveri¸ Aonidiella orientalis, Nipaecocus nipae, oak (Quercus virginiana) pollen] and a no-food control were tested to determine the predators’ development, survivorship, oviposition rate, sex ratio and longevity at 26.5 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% RH and a 12:12 L:D photophase. Amblyseius largoensis was able to complete its life cycle and reproduce when fed exclusively on R. indica. The development of immature stages of A. largoensis was faster and fecundity and survivorship were higher when fed on R. indica or T. gloveri compared to the other food sources. The intrinsic rate of natural increase of A. largoensis was significantly higher when fed on R. indica than on other diets. These results suggest that, despite earlier assessments, A. largoensis can play a role in controlling R. indica.     

Comparative analysis of prokaryotic diversity in solar salterns in eastern Anatolia (Turkey)

The prokaryotic communities of four salterns (Bingöl, Fadlum, Kemah, and Tuzlagözü) in Turkey were examined and compared using the cultivation and cultivation-independent methods [fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and 454 pyrosequencing]. FISH analysis with universal probes revealed that feeding waters carried 1.6 × 10²–1.7 × 10³ cells mL^?1, while crystallization ponds carried 3.8 × 10⁶–2.0 × 10⁷ cells mL^?1 that were mostly haloarchaea, including square cells (except for Kemah). High-throughput 16S rRNA-based gene sequencing showed that the most frequent archaeal OTUs in Bingöl, Fadlum, Tuzlagözü, and Kemah samples were affiliated with Haloquadratum (76.8 %), Haloarcula (27.8 %), Halorubrum (49.6 %), and Halonotius (59.8 %), respectively. Bacteroidetes was the dominant bacterial phylum in Bingöl and Fadlum, representing 71.5 and 79.5 % of the bacterial OTUs (respectively), while the most abundant bacterial phylum found in the Kemah saltern was Proteobacteria (79.6 %). The majority of the bacterial OTUs recovered from Tuzlagözü belonged to the Cyanobacteria (35.7 %), Bacteroidetes (35.0 %), and Proteobacteria (25.5 %) phyla. Cultivation studies revealed that the archaeal isolates were closely related to the genera Halobacterium, Haloarcula, and Halorubrum. Bacterial isolates were confined to two phyla, Proteobacteria (Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria classes) and Bacteroidetes. Comparative analysis showed that members of the Euryarchaeota, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Cyanobacteria phyla were major inhabitants of the solar salterns.