Protocols for listing threatened species can forecast extinction

Risk‐ranking protocols are used widely to classify the conservation status of the world's species. Here we report on the first empirical assessment of their reliability by using a retrospective study of 18 pairs of bird and mammal species (one species extinct and the other extant) with eight different assessors. The performance of individual assessors varied substantially, but performance was improved by incorporating uncertainty in parameter estimates and consensus among the assessors. When this was done, the ranks from the protocols were consistent with the extinction outcome in 70–80% of pairs and there were mismatches in only 10–20% of cases. This performance was similar to the subjective judgements of the assessors after they had estimated the range and population parameters required by the protocols, and better than any single parameter. When used to inform subjective judgement, the protocols therefore offer a means of reducing unpredictable biases that may be associated with expert input and have the advantage of making the logic behind assessments explicit. We conclude that the protocols are useful for forecasting extinctions, although they are prone to some errors that have implications for conservation. Some level of error is to be expected, however, given the influence of chance on extinction. The performance of risk assessment protocols may be improved by providing training in the application of the protocols, incorporating uncertainty in parameter estimates and using consensus among multiple assessors, including some who are experts in the application of the protocols. Continued testing and refinement of the protocols may help to provide better absolute estimates of risk, particularly by re‐evaluating how the protocols accommodate missing data.     

Species prioritization for monitoring and management in regional multiple species conservation plans

Successful conservation plans are not solely achieved by acquiring optimally designed reserves. Ongoing monitoring and management of the biodiversity in those reserves is an equally important, but often neglected or poorly executed, part of the conservation process. In this paper we address one of the first and most important steps in designing a monitoring program – deciding what to monitor. We present a strategy for prioritizing species for monitoring and management in multispecies conservation plans. We use existing assessments of threatened status, and the degree and spatial and temporal extent of known threats to link the prioritization of species to the overarching goals and objectives of the conservation plan. We consider both broad and localized spatial scales to capture the regional conservation context and the practicalities of local management and monitoring constraints. Spatial scales that are commensurate with available data are selected. We demonstrate the utility of this strategy through application to a set of 85 plants and animals in an established multispecies conservation plan in San Diego County, California, USA. We use the prioritization to identify the most prominent risk factors and the habitats associated with the most threats to species. The protocol highlighted priorities that had not previously been identified and were not necessarily intuitive without systematic application of the criteria; many high‐priority species have received no monitoring attention to date, and lower‐priority species have. We recommend that in the absence of clear focal species, monitoring threats in highly impacted habitats may be a way to circumvent the need to monitor all the targeted species.     

A decision tool for listing species for protection on different geographic scales and administrative levels

An important task in conservation biology is to assess the spatial scale pertinent for species protection since some species may require protection throughout their distribution, others in only part of their range. Once this is done, species can be correctly identified for listing at different administrative levels (e.g. continental, national, and local). Here, we propose an objective method to list taxa at nested administrative levels based on three criteria (responsibility, rarity and vulnerability). We tested the method using quantitative data on the distribution, abundance and decline of orchids in France. The proposed method enables increased protection status in regions where species’ abundance and diversity are higher, gives priority to species for which an individual administrative unit has high responsibility and allows objective integration of species decline at different administrative levels. The method also enables the integration of locally rare species at their distribution limits and avoids repetition of species listing across second-level administrative units. The use of an objective method such as this could contribute to a standardised system of priority setting that integrates the geographic scale of rarity in relation to different administrative levels for protection.     

列入《濒危野生动植物物种国际贸易公约》附录的物种的新标准

ＣＩＴＥＳ（濒危野生动植物国际贸易公约）是一个通过控制贸易的方法来维护物种生存及其持续利用的国际法规,其附录中所列的物种是重点管理的对象,主要根据现有的Ｂｅｒｎｅ标准来确定。但是,长期的实践证明,它已不能满足实际的需要。１９９２年６月ＣＩＴＥＳ常务委员会要求世界保护联盟协助制定一个简明、实用、科学和客观的新标准,本文对此作一简介和讨论。     

Maximizing species conservation in continental Ecuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide, but also a low representation of species within its protected areas. Here, we applied systematic conservation planning to identify potential areas for conservation in continental Ecuador, with the aim of increasing the representation of terrestrial species diversity in the protected area network. We selected 809 terrestrial species (amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants), for which distributions were estimated via species distribution models (SDMs), using Maxent. For each species we established conservation goals based on conservation priorities, and estimated new potential protected areas using Marxan conservation planning software. For each selected area, we determined their conservation priority and feasibility of establishment, two important aspects in the decision-making processes. We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps. Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas. Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use. The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves. Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador''s biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas. This approach is useful for complementing protected area networks in countries with great biodiversity, insufficient biological information, and limited resources for conservation.     

Environmental diagnosis: Integrating biodiversity conservation in management of Natura 2000 forest spaces

The conservation of biodiversity in Europe is defined by Directive 92/43/EEC – commonly known as the Habitats Directive – relating to the conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna. This Directive established the creation of an ecological network of European protected areas – the Natura 2000 network – , and also recognised the need to manage these areas to maintain their “favourable conservation status”.This paper proposes a methodology which enables the conservation of biodiversity to be integrated into the management of Natura 2000 forest spaces. The methodology comprises an “environmental diagnosis” in three phases. The first phase evaluates the current conservation status of habitats using the following criteria: vital functions; floristic richness; forest structure; area occupied by the habitat; and recovery capacity. The second phase assesses the fragility of the space to determine the degree of vulnerability of habitats. This involves evaluating the fire hazard, erosion hazard, and the fragility of the vegetation. The last phase combines the two previous ones to generate management areas (optimum, intermediate or unfavourable) and to prioritise management actions.This methodology was applied in a protected forest area in the Natura 2000 network, located in Avila (Spain). Different management areas were generated for biodiversity conservation, and each habitat was associated to one of them. Finally, actions were prioritised and designed to raise the habitats to a “favourable conservation status”.     

Recovering threatened plant species and their habitats: The need for integrated action

As an introduction to the Special Issue on the restoration of threatened plant species and their habitats,this editorial shows how the various papers in the issue address the range of in situ interventions involved in species population management and restoration of their habitat, together with examples of case studies implementing these actions. It stresses the need for integrating these various interventions.It highlights the importance of protected areas in providing a degree of protection for threatened species but also the need to complement this with actions at the species level to ensure the effective conservation and long term persistence of these species. It emphasizes that ecological restoration is a complement to, not a substitute for conservation, and that the balance of effort and allocation of resources between them is a key issue.     

Identifying priority areas for invertebrate conservation using land snails as models

Mollusca is a megadiverse phylum with an estimated number of 70,000–76,000 described species which can inhabit a wide variety of environments. Among them, land snails are a main component of terrestrial ecosystems and they play a pivotal role in ecosystem functioning. They are suffering habitat loss, overexploitation and competition from introduced species, but are regarded as a “non-charismatic” group for conservation purposes. Orthalicoidea is a dominant faunal element in the Neotropics and in Argentina includes 104 species that inhabit a variety of environments. Their abundance, diversity, comprehensive taxonomy and widespread representation in different ecoregions makes this molluscan group an excellent model for biodiversity assessments. The database used here consisted of 985 unique geographic records of 104 species. Species distribution models were generated using the Maximum Entropy method and Zonation v 3.1 was used to evaluate the proposed conservation goals. Three analyses including species distributions, the current protected areas system (PAs) and the Human print layer were carried out. This allowed the identification of priority areas for conservation, the percentage of the species distribution under PAs and analysis of the potential impacts under current land use and in the priority areas detected above. Sixty-one species were modeled, and 59 of them were included in the priority area selection process due to their high area under curve (AUC) scores. Five high priority areas located in the different ecoregions, were identified: 1-dry Chaco, 2-humid Pampas, 3-Southern Andean Yungas, 4-Alto Paraná Atlantic Forests and 5-high Monte. A small percentage of the average distribution range of Orthalicoidean species (3%) was within the current protected areas. Highest-ranked priority areas for land snails are outside the current protected areas system. When human impact is considered, the priority areas are reduced in size and appear as small patches. However, highest priority areas for conservation continue being those detected in the above analyses. Most of the areas detected are used for economic purposes, creating conflicts of interest between the development of human activities and conservation. This study represents one of the first attempts to identify ecoregion level priority areas for a terrestrial invertebrate group. Further analyses, including new predictors and other molluscan taxa, would improve planning the conservation of poorly known invertebrate groups.     

Identifying biodiversity hotspots for threatened mammal species in Iran

Conservation biology has much more attention for biodiversity hot spots than before. In order to recognize the hotspots for Iranian terrestrial mammal species that are listed in any red list, nationally or globally, ten Species Distribution Models (SDMs) have been applied. The SDMs evaluation results based on the TSS and AUC values showed that all ten models of habitat suitability perform significantly better than the random selection for all studied species. According to the results, biodiversity hotspots for threatened mammal species are located in north, west and central of Iran, along the Zagros and Alborz mountain range. Therefore, habitats for threatened mammal species have been limited to small parts of Iran (approximately 27% of the country). These areas are severely fragmented and only 57% of them have been announced protected by the current conservation system. The suggestion is that, as the sustainability of these habitats would strongly depend on maintaining dispersal corridors to facilitate the movement of animals among the habitat fragments, conservation efforts should focus on those hotspots which are not formally protected under conservation laws.     

From research to implementation: Nature conservation in the Eastern Rhodopes mountains (Greece and Bulgaria), European Green Belt

Nature conservation should ideally build on the scientific recommendations that are concluded from applied conservation research, as well as on monitoring schemes that evaluate the effectiveness of recommendations. We considered as a case study a system of six protected areas located in the Eastern Rhodopes mountains in the southern part of the European Green Belt (EGB). To investigate nature conservation effectiveness, we reviewed 196 articles from scientific journals and books, eight doctoral and master theses, and 39 scientific reports regarding the Greek (one protected area, 428 km²) and the Bulgarian (five protected areas, 904 km²) part of the study area. We extracted 743 conservation recommendations, and through questionnaires completed by 10 local experts, we found that 74% of the recommendations were familiar for the experts. In the Greek (GR) and the Bulgarian part (BG) only 52% and 16%, respectively, of the recommendations were implemented, and only 15% (GR) and 3.1% (BG) were implemented and evaluated regarding their effectiveness. According to the experts, the main reasons for non-implementation and non-evaluation were absence or incompetence of the responsible authorities. Some recommendations obtained a remarkable low rate of implementation, such as those regarding agriculture and livestock rearing practices (GR: 29%, BG: 16%) or mammal conservation (GR: 0%, BG: 16%). Some other recommendations obtained rather high rates at least for Greece, such as tourism and environmental education (GR: 57%, BG: 42%) and bird conservation (GR: 57%, BG: 11%). We found that researchers and conservation managers at both sides of the Greek-Bulgarian border face similar implementation problems, related often to the lack of political will for nature conservation and establishment of competent authorities. The role of the EGB is crucial in enhancing the established cross-border collaborations between stakeholders involved in nature conservation.     

A new method for conservation planning for the persistence of multiple species

Although the aim of conservation planning is the persistence of biodiversity, current methods trade-off ecological realism at a species level in favour of including multiple species and landscape features. For conservation planning to be relevant, the impact of landscape configuration on population processes and the viability of species needs to be considered. We present a novel method for selecting reserve systems that maximize persistence across multiple species, subject to a conservation budget. We use a spatially explicit metapopulation model to estimate extinction risk, a function of the ecology of the species and the amount, quality and configuration of habitat. We compare our new method with more traditional, area-based reserve selection methods, using a ten-species case study, and find that the expected loss of species is reduced 20-fold. Unlike previous methods, we avoid designating arbitrary weightings between reserve size and configuration; rather, our method is based on population processes and is grounded in ecological theory.     

Implementing artificial insemination as an effective tool for ex situ conservation of endangered avian species

Approximately 503 of the known species of birds are classified as ‘endangered’ or ‘critical’. Captive propagation programs have proven useful in maintaining genetic diversity and restoring wild populations of certain species, including the Peregrine falcon, California condor and Whooping crane. Artificial insemination (AI) has the potential of solving problems inherent to reproductive management of small, closed populations of endangered birds, including dealing with demographic instability, physical and behavioral disabilities, sexual incompatibility, lack of synchrony, and need to maintain gene diversity. In this review, we address the necessary methods and factors that allow AI to be applied effectively to manage rare bird populations. It is clear that semen availability and quality are the greatest limiting factors to implementing consistently successful AI for birds. Behavioral sensitivity to animal handling and the ability to minimize stress in individual birds also are keys to success. Multiple, deep vaginal inseminations can improve fertility, particularly when semen quality is marginal. Laparoscopic methods of semen transfer also have produced fertile eggs. All of these practices leading to successful AI remain dependent on having adequate basic knowledge on female reproductive status, copulatory behavior, endocrine profiles and duration of fertility, especially as related to oviposition. The overall greatest challenge and highest priority is defining these normative traits, which are highly species-specific.     

国家濒危物种红色名录的生物多样性保护意义

IUCN濒危物种红色名录与国家濒危物种红色名录都是物种灭绝风险的测度, 前者是全球性评估, 后者则是国别研究。IUCN濒危物种红色名录预警了全球物种的濒危状况, 为全球生物多样性研究提供了大数据; 国别红色名录确定了各国物种受威胁状况, 填补了前者的知识空缺, 两份名录互为补充。目前对国家濒危物种红色名录重视不够。基于如下原因, 应当重视国别濒危物种红色名录的意义: (1)国家是濒危物种保护的行为主体, 物种在一个国家的生存状况是确定其保护级别、开展濒危物种保育的依据; (2)对于仅分布于一个国家的特有物种来说, 其国别濒危物种红色名录等级即是其全球濒危等级; (3)对于跨国境分布的物种来说, 国别濒危物种红色名录等级则确定了该物种在本国的生存状况; (4)结合IUCN濒危物种红色名录, 国别濒危物种红色名录为建立跨国保护地、保护迁徙物种的栖息地与跨国迁徙洄游通道提供依据; (5)国别濒危物种红色名录所特有的“区域灭绝”等级, 反映了一个物种边缘种群在该国的区域灭绝, 恢复“区域灭绝”物种是该物种原分布国重引入保育工作的重点; (6)国别濒危物种红色名录提供了该国物种编目、分类、分布和生存状况的最新信息。然而, 国别濒危物种红色名录的重要性在许多情况下被忽视了。目前正值全球新冠肺炎大流行, 人们正在重新审视人与野生动物的关系。我国将修订有关野生动物保护与防疫法法律以及《国家重点保护野生动物名录》, 防控新的人与野生动物共患疾病再次暴发。对于确定国家重点保护野生动物物种名录来言, 物种受威胁程度是物种列为国家重点保护物种的特征之一。重视国别红色名录有特别的意义。     

Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia

Summary   Widespread exotic species provide one of the greatest challenges to biodiversity conservation because they often have devastating impacts on native biota but are near impossible to eradicate. The Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) is established across most of mainland Australia, where it has been linked to severe declines and extinctions of a broad suite of native fauna. A targeted approach to reducing the impacts of Foxes on biodiversity was instigated in New South Wales in 2001 under the New South Wales Fox Threat Abatement Plan. It is based on three simple steps. First, explicit priorities for Fox control are established by identifying which native species are at greatest risk from Fox predation and at which sites Fox control for these species is most critical. Second, high-frequency broad-area Fox-control programmes are established across all land tenures at these priority sites. Third, monitoring programmes are established to measure the response of targeted native fauna and Foxes to Fox control. Monitoring helps refine the priorities for control and the methods used over time. This approach provides a model for the strategic control of widespread exotic pests which threaten biodiversity.     

Using niche modelling and human influence index to indicate conservation priorities for Atlantic forest deer species

To prioritise conservation actions and management strategies for threatened forest deer species at the Atlantic forest, we aimed to identify and describe the most suitable habitat areas for forest deer species and to indicate conservation measures for state agents and local communities. We adopt an approach based on ecological niche modelling, key variable thresholds and spatial analyses. In addition, we associated our approach with a human influence index, an invasive species dataset of occurrences, protected area cover and IUCN category. We indicate 2 % (484 km²) of the Atlantic forest cover as conservation priority areas (CPAs). Of these, 56.8 % are outside protected areas, 20.7 % are inside IUCN categories i, ii and iii protected areas, 19.9 % are inside IUCN categories iv, v, and vi protected areas, and 2.6 % are inside indigenous areas. Also, we indicate the most relevant protected areas for deer conservation in the Atlantic forest. The CPAs were classified into more human-influenced areas (MHIA) and less human-influenced areas (LHIA), and we identified 21 significant (greater than120 km²) continuous CPAs outside protected areas. We highlight actions in several perspectives of human influence, governance levels and law protection that would rationalise the use of funds and human resources.     

Onychophora in invertebrate conservation: priorities, practice and prospects

The rationale of promoting onychophorans as target taxa in invertebrate conservation is discussed. Current knowledge relevant to onychophoran conservation is outlined and gaps are identified. The prospects for conserving onychophorans are discussed, and priorities suggested.     

中国鸡形目鸟类的现状与保护对策

鸡形目是一个与人类关系非常密切的鸟类类群 ,其保护工作受到国际自然保护组织的广泛关注。作为世界上鸡形目鸟类资源最为丰富的国家之一 ,我国加强该类群鸟类的保护工作不仅是野生动物资源保护的一个重要组成部分 ,而且对全球生物多样性的保护具有特别重要的意义。本文结合国家林业局“十五”期间将要实施的《全国野生动植物及自然保护区建设工程总体规划》 ,对我国鸡形目鸟类的多样性、特有性和分布特点进行了阐述 ,对该类群的濒危状况和致危因素进行了分析 ,从就地保护、易地保护以及科学研究三个方面介绍了我国在该类群研究与保护方面所取得的成就 ,探讨了目前保护管理工作中所存在的问题并提出了相应的保护对策