Measles Virus Ribonucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis: Effects of 6-Azauridine and Cycloheximide on Viral Replication

Cycloheximide and 6-azauridine were employed to study the time course of measles virus protein and nucleic acid syntheses in AV3 cells. Synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) essential for infectivity was first detected at 6 hr and increased concurrently with the formation of essential protein. Maximum levels of virus-specific RNA and protein were present by 18 hr, a time when only 5% of progeny virus was detected. Essential RNA and protein syntheses preceded the formation of infectious virus by at least 10 to 12 hr. The time course of RNA and protein syntheses essential for the formation of complement-fixing (CF) antigen and salt-dependent agglutinin (SDA) was also determined. RNA synthesis essential for the formation of SDA was first detected at 2 hr and was present maximally by 6 hr, whereas SDA-protein increased concurrently with the protein essential for infectivity. This suggested that the last protein essential for infectivity may be SDA. RNA synthesis essential for the formation of CF antigen was first detected at 4 hr, while CF-protein increased at 5 hr and preceded SDA-protein and protein essential for infectivity by approximately 3 hr. Reversal of inhibition of protein synthesis by cycloheximide indicated that early protein synthesis (1 to 3 hr) was required for the formation of infectious virus. The data suggest that the relatively long eclipse period observed with measles virus is related to a long maturation period rather than to late formation of early proteins, viral RNA, or structural proteins.     

Purification of virus-specific RNA from chicken cells infected with avian sarcoma virus: identification of genome-length and subgenome-leghth viral RNAs.

Avian sarcoma virus (ASV)-specific RNA was purified from ASV-infected cells by using hybridization techniques which employ polydeoxycytidylic acid-elongated DNA complementary to ASV RNA as well as chromatography on polyinosinic acid-Sephadex columns. The purity and nucleotide sequence composition of purified, virus-specific RNA were established by rehybridization experiments and analysis of labeled RNase T1-resistant oligonucleotides by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Polyadenylic acid-containing RNA purified from ASV-infected cells contained approximately 1 to 4% virus-specific RNA, compared with 0.06 to 0.15% observed in uninfected cells. Sucrose gradient analysis of virus-specific RNA isolated from ASV-infected cells revealed two major classes of polyadenylated viral RNA with sedimentation values of 36S and 26-28S. Cells infected with transformation-defective ASV (virus containing a deletion of the sarcoma gene) contained 34S and 20-22S viral RNA species. Double-label experiments employing infected cells labeled initially for 48 h with [3H]uridine and then for either 30, 60, or 240 min with [32P]phosphate showed that the intracellular accumulation of genome-length RNA (36S) was significantly faster than that of the 26-28S viral RNA species.     

Latency of Human Measles Virus in Hamster Cells

A latent system employing measles virus (Schwarz strain) was developed in hamster embryo fibroblasts (HEF). Measles virus-specific antigen was detected by immunofluorescence in 30 to 50% of HEF cells, and these cells released infectious virus when co-cultivated with a susceptible monkey cell line, BSC-1 cells. No infectious virus could be detected in the cells when measures were taken to exclude passage of viable latent cells onto the indicator BSC-1 cells. Infectious center assays demonstrated that about 1 in 10 of the latently infected cells in the population could release infectious virus. Infectious virus appeared within 6 hr after co-cultivation of the HEF cells with BSC-1 cells, as compared to 24 hr required for normal replication of measles virus in the BSC-1 cells. Furthermore, labeling of progeny virus ribonucleic acid (RNA) by using tritiated uridine, and inhibition of RNA or protein synthesis by 5-azacytidine or cycloheximide suggested that neither additional RNA nor protein synthesis is required after co-cultivation of the cells to effect early virus release. It can therefore be postulated that there is a block at a late step in virus replication in the latently infected hamster cells. The most obvious site would concern maturation of infectious virions at the cell membrane.     

Characterization of Virus-Specific RNAs from Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis Virus-Infected CV-1 Cells

CV-1 cells infected with subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) virus incorporated uridine-(3)H into at least four virus-specific RNA components in the presence of actinomycin D. The component sedimenting fastest had a sedimentation coefficient of 50s corresponding to a molecular weight of 6 x 10(6). The other three RNA components have sedimentation constants of 35s, 22s, and 18s corresponding to molecular weights of 2.5 x 10(6), 1.0 x 10(6), and 0.75 x 10(6), respectively. The base composition of the 50s RNA is distinct from that of cellular RNA and comparable with base compositions of viral RNAs of other paramyxoviruses. The base composition of the 18s RNA shows approximate complementarity with the 50s RNA. RNA-RNA annealing experiments using unlabeled 50s SSPE RNA with labeled 18s RNA from cells infected with SSPE virus or measles virus show 100% annealing with 18s SSPE RNA but only 60% annealing with 18s measles RNA. These experiments suggest some differences between the 18s RNAs of SSPE virus-infected cells and measles virus-infected cells.     

Quantitative Determination and Location of Newly Synthesized Virus-Specific Ribonucleic Acid in Chicken Cells Infected with Rous Sarcoma Virus

A sensitive and quantitative nucleic acid hybridization assay for the detection of radioactively labeled avian tumor virus-specific RNA in infected chicken cells has been developed. In our experiments we made use of the fact that DNA synthesized by virions of avian myeloblastosis virus in the presence of actinomycin D (AMV DNA) is complementary to at least 35% of the sequences of 70S RNA from the Schmidt-Ruppin strain (SRV) of Rous sarcoma virus. Annealing of radioactive RNA (either SRV RNA or RNA extensively purified from SRV-infected chicken cells) with AMV DNA followed by ribonuclease digestion and Sephadex chromatography yielded products which were characterized as avian tumor virus-specific RNA-DNA hybrids by hybridization competition with unlabeled 70S AMV RNA, equilibrium density-gradient centrifugation in Cs(2)SO(4) gradients, and by analysis of their ribonucleotide composition. The amount of viral RNA synthesized during pulse labeling with (3)H-uridine could be quantitated by the addition of an internal standard consisting of (32)P-labeled SRV RNA prior to purification and hybridization. This quantitative assay was used to determine that, in SRV-infected chicken cells labeled for increasing lengths of time with (3)H-uridine, labeled viral RNA appeared first in a nuclear fraction, then in a cytoplasmic fraction, and still later in mature virions. This observation is consistent with the hypothesis that RNA tumor virus RNA is synthesized in the nucleus of infected cells.     

RNA metabolism of murine leukemia virus: detection of virus-specific RNA sequences in infected and uninfected cells and identification of virus-specific messenger RNA

Virus-specific RNA sequences were detected in mouse cells infected with murine leukemia virus by hybridization with radioactively labeled DNA complementary to Moloney murine leukemia virus RNA. The DNA was synthesized in vitro using the endogenous virion RNA-dependent DNA polymerase and the DNA product was characterized by size and its ability to protect radioactive viral RNA. Virus-specific RNA sequences were found in two lines of leukemia virus-infected cells (JLS-V11 and SCRF 60A) and also in an uninfected line (JLS-V9). Approximately 0.3% of the cytoplasmic RNA in JLS-VII cells was virus-specific and 0.9% of SCRF 60A cell RNA was virus-specific. JLS-V9 cells contained approximately tenfold less virus-specific RNA than infected JLS-VII cells. Moloney leukemia virus DNA completely annealed to JLS-VII or SCRF 60A RNA but only partial annealing was observed with JLS-V9 RNA. This difference is ascribed to non-homologies between the RNA sequences of Moloney virus and the endogenous virus of JLS-V9 cells.Virus-specific RNA was found to exist in infected cells in three major size classes: 60–70 S RNA, 35 S RNA and 20–30 S RNA. The 60–70 S RNA was apparently primarily at the cell surface, since agents which remove material from the cell surface were effective in removing a majority of the 60–70 S RNA. The 35 S and 20–30 S RNA is relatively unaffected by these procedures. Sub-fractionation of the cytoplasm indicated that approximately 35% of the cytoplasmic virus-specific RNA in infected cells is contained in the membrane-bound material. The membrane-bound virus-specific RNA consists of some residual 60–70 S RNA and 35 S RNA, but very little 20–30 S RNA. Virus-specific messenger RNA was identified in polyribosome gradients of infected cell cytoplasm. Messenger RNA was differentiated from other virus-specific RNAs by the criterion that virus-specific messenger RNA must change in sedimentation rate following polyribosome disaggregation. Two procedures for polyribosome disaggregation were used: treatment with EDTA and in vitro incubation of polyribosomes with puromycin in conditions of high ionic strength. As identified by this criterion, the virus-specific messenger RNA appeared to be mostly 35 S RNA. No function for the 20–30 S was determined.     

RNA metabolism of murine leukemia virus II. Endogenous virus-specific RNA in the uninfected BALB/c cell line JLS-V9.

Type C virus-specific RNA sequences of BALB/c endogenous virus were detected in JLS-V9 cells (an uninfected BALB/c derived line) by annealing cell RNA with 3-H-labeled virus-specific DNA. Endogenous viruses used in preparing the 3-H-labeled DNA (mostly xenotropic) was prepared from JLS-V9 cells induced to produce virus with iododeoxyuridine. In whole-cell extracts, two virus-specific RNA species, 38S and 27S, were detected. No 60 to 70S virus-specific RNA was found. The same two species of virus-specific RNA were observed in isolated cytoplasmic RNA and in cytoplasmic RNA selected for polyadenylic acid-containing species by binding and elution from oligo(dT) cellulose. Very little, if any, of the virus-specific RNA was active as messenger RNA on polyribosomes. No virus-specific RNA transcribed from genes coding for the BALB/c endogenous N-tropic virus was detected, since 3-H-labeled DNA prepared from endogenous N-tropic virus did not hybridize measurably with JLS-V9 RNA.     

Homologous Interference by Incomplete Sendai Virus Particles: Changes in Virus-Specific Ribonucleic Acid Synthesis

Incomplete Sendai virus particles (I particles) interfered with the replication of several strains of infectious Sendai virions (standard virus) but not with the replication of Newcastle disease virus, mumps virus, or Sindbis virus. I particles did not induce interferon, and ultraviolet irradiation of I particles abolished their ability to interfere. Protein synthesis was not necessary to establish interference. The degree of interference depended on the interval between exposure of cells to the I particles and challenge by standard virus, and this was reflected in the degree of inhibition of virus-specific ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis in infected cells. The most dramatic change was decreased accumulation of 50S virus-specific RNA in infected cells. RNA species sedimenting slower than 50S were not as markedly reduced in total amount, but hybridization experiments showed that a substantial portion of these slowly sedimenting RNA species were plus strands, presumably representing replicas of the RNA species in I particles. When I particles in insufficient numbers to interfere were added to cells as late as 8 hr after standard virus, there were no obvious changes in virus-specific RNA species in the cells; however, significant amounts of 19 and 25S RNA species, representing progeny of the I particles, appeared in the culture medium. It was concluded that interference was an intracellular event affecting an early step in virus replication. Competition by I particles for cell sites or substrates needed by standard virus seemed a less likely mechanism of interference than competition for enzymes specified by standard virus.     

Persistent Infection of Cells in Culture by Measles Virus III. Comparison of Virus-Specific RNA Synthesized in Primary and Persistent Infection in HeLa Cells

The pattern of actinomycin D-resistant RNA synthesis was examined during primary infection of HeLa cells by virulent Edmonston measles virus and in two HeLa clones persistently infected by the same strain of virus. One of these clones, K11, produces infectious virus of low virulence for HeLa cells, and the other, K11A-HG-1, has thus far failed to yield infectious virus. The patterns of virus-specific RNA synthesized in these three types of infection are qualitatively similar to each other and to the patterns of virus-specific RNA synthesis in other paramyxovirus infections. There were, however, quantitative differences. In addition, virions of the virulent Edmonston strain of measles virus were found to contain high-molecular-weight RNA with a sedimentation constant identical to that of Newcastle disease virus.     

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Replication in Simian Virus 40-Infected Cells IV. Two Different Requirements for Protein Synthesis During Simian Virus 40 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Replication

The replication of simian virus 40 (SV40) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was inhibited by 99% 2 hr after the addition of cycloheximide to SV40-infected primary African green monkey kidney cells. The levels of 25S (replicating) and 21S (mature) SV40 DNA synthesized after cycloheximide treatment were always lower than those observed in an infected untreated control culture. This is consistent with a requirement for a protein(s) or for protein synthesis at the initiation step in SV40 DNA replication. The relative proportion of 25S DNA as compared with 21S viral DNA increased with increasing time after cycloheximide treatment. Removal of cycloheximide from inhibited cultures allowed the recovery of viral DNA synthesis to normal levels within 3 hr. During the recovery period, the ratio of 25S DNA to 21S DNA was 10 times higher than that observed after a 30-min pulse with (3)H-thymidine with an infected untreated control culture. The accumulation of 25S replicating SV40 DNA during cycloheximide inhibition or shortly after its removal is interpreted to mean that a protein(s) or protein synthesis is required to convert the 25S replicating DNA to 21S mature viral DNA. Further evidence of a requirement for protein synthesis in the 25S to 21S conversion was obtained by comparing the rate of this conversion in growing and resting cells. The conversion of 25S DNA to 21S DNA took place at a faster rate in infected growing cells than in infected confluent monolayer cultures. A temperature-sensitive SV40 coat protein mutation (large-plaque SV40) had no effect on the replication of SV40 DNA at the nonpermissive temperature.     

Intracellular distribution and sedimentation properties of virus-specific RNA in two clones of BHK cells transformed by polyoma virus.

The virus-specific RNA in two independently derived clones of polyoma virus-transformed hamster cells was studied by hybridizing labeled RNA, with excess purified polyoma DNA, immoblized on filters. In one clone (PyBHK1), less than 25% of the total labeled virus-specific RNA was found in the cytoplasm, irrespective of the labeling time. In the other clone (PyBHK2), it was estimated that 39% of the total virus-specific RNA was present inthe cytoplasm after labeling for 3 h. Both the proportion of radioactive label incorporated into virus-specific RNA and the sedimentation pattern of total virus-specific RNA differed markedly between PyBHK and PyBHK2. Most of the virus-specific RNA of PyBHK1 sedimented in the range 25S-35S, whereas a prominent 18S component was present in PyBHK2. Most of the cytoplasmic virus-specific RNA in both clones sedimented at 18S-19S. The sedimentation patterns of virus-specific RNA from whole cells and from washed nuclei of PyBHK1 were closely similar: it was estimated from sedimentation analysis in dimethyl sulfoxide that the molecular weight of 50% of this RNA was within the range 1.1 X10(6) to 2.9 X 10(6). These results, demonstrating the accumulation of virus-specific RNA within the nucleus in at least one virus-transformed cell line, indicate that the large virus-specific RNA previously described in the nuclei of transformed cells may not have represented precursors of virus-specific mRNA.     

Effect of cordycepin (3''-deoxyadenosine) on virus-specific RNA species synthesized in Newcastle disease virus-infected cells.

Cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine) has no effect on the size or relative proportions of Newcastle disease virus-specific 18-22S mRNA species nor on the amount or size of the polyadenylic acid associated with them. Cordycepin does, however, cause an inhibition of incorporation of [3H]uridine into 50S virus-specific RNA relative to 18-22S RNA. This inhibition is probably not a direct effect of the drug on the synthesis of 50S viral RNA. Like cycloheximide, another drug which inhibits 50S RNA accumulation in paramyxovirus-infected cells, cordycepin inhibits protein synthesis as measured by amino acid incorporation. It is likely that the inhibition of 50S RNA accumulation is a secondary effect of protein synthesis inhibition. This is supported by the finding that concentrations of cordycepin and cycloheximide, which inhibit protein synthesis to the same extent, have the same effect on the ratio of 50 to 18-22S virus-specific RNA.     

Further characterization of the replicative complex of vesicular stomatitis virus.

Replicating vesicular stomatitis virus ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes were isolated in nonequilibrium Renografin density gradients. These nascent RNPs had the same buoyant density as virion nucleocapsids in both isopycnic Renografin and CsCl gradients. Both transcribing and replicating RNP complexes were shown to be stable in sucrose gradients, whereas only replicating RNP complexes were stable in Renografin gradients. Size analysis of the 5-min-pulse-labeled RNA species from the replicating RNPs using methylmercury gels revealed that the nascent strands were primarily less than full-length molecules. Longer times of radiolabeling demonstrated that the nascent RNA accumulated as 42S RNA, which was primarily of the same sense as the virion strand when it was radiolabeled at 5 h postinfection. The percentage of this radiolabeled RNA which was plus stranded was higher at 2.5 h postinfection, reflective of the shift in plus- to minus-stranded full-length 42S RNA synthesis which occurs in the cell. Addition of cycloheximide to the infected cells before the addition of the radiolabel prevented the formation of these RNP complexes. Both the change in the percentage of minus strands found in the RNP complexes at the different times postinfection and the sensitivity to cycloheximide indicate that the RNP complex which was isolated was indeed the replicative complex.     

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus-Induced Alterations of Baby Hamster Kidney Cell Macromolecular Biosynthesis: Inhibition of Ribonucleic Acid Methylation and Stimulation of Ribonucleic Acid Synthesis

The kinetics of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein synthesis and RNA methylation were examined after foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection of baby hamster kidney cells. The synthesis of RNA extracted from the whole cells was stimulated two- to threefold above the control level of synthesis. This increased rate was attributed to viral RNA synthesis. The inhibition of host RNA methylation was concomitant with but more pronounced than protein synthesis inhibition. The methylation of transfer RNA was initially inhibited by virus infection, but rose to within 70 to 80% of the control level just prior to the production of maximal amounts of virus-specific RNA polymerase. Cycloheximide studies showed that rapid cessation of protein synthesis did not result in the immediate cessation of RNA methylation. A comparison between the kinetics of inhibition of these processes by cycloheximide and FMDV infection suggests that FMDV selectively inhibits RNA methylation.     

Formation of Viral Ribonucleic Acid and Virus in Cells that are Permissive or Nonpermissive for Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (GDVII)

GDVII virus growth in BHK-21 cells, a permissive host for the virus, resembled productive infections with other picornaviruses. Virus yields ranged from 100 to 600 plaque-forming units (PFU)/cell. Virus replication in HeLa cells, a nonpermissive host for GDVII virus, was characterized by virus yields of only 0.1 to 5 PFU/cell. Similar low yields of virus have been obtained from HeLa cells at all multiplicities of input up to 6,000 per cell. The progeny particles from HeLa cells were, like the infecting particles, restricted in the HeLa cell host. Despite the great difference in final yields of virus from BHK-21 and HeLa cells, the times when maximal yields were reached were similar. GDVII virus stock grown in BHK-21 cells was designated HeLa(-). A variant of GDVII virus which is capable of extensive growth in HeLa cells was obtained. This variant, designated HeLa(+) GDVII virus, was passaged serially in HeLa cells. Virus yields of 50 to 150 infective virus particles per cell were obtained from infection of HeLa cells with HeLa(+) GDVII virus. The major species of HeLa(+) virus-specific ribonucleic acid (RNA) produced was single stranded and sedimented with an S value of 35S. The rate of accumulation of HeLa(+) virus-specific RNA in HeLa cell cultures was about four times that of HeLa(-) RNA. The amount of virus-specific HeLa(+) RNA formed in HeLa cells was several-fold greater than that of HeLa(-) RNA. With HeLa(-) parent GDVII virus undergoing productive replication in BHK-21 cells or abortive replication in HeLa cells, the major species of virus-specific RNA produced was single stranded and sedimented with an approximate S value of 35S. The amount of HeLa(-) virus-specific RNA extracted from BHK-21 cells was several-fold greater than the amount obtained from HeLa cells.     

Intracellular Viral RNA Species in Mouse Cells Nonproductively Transformed by the Murine Sarcoma Virus

The size and quantity of virus-specific RNA in five non-virus-producing mouse cells transformed by the Moloney isolate of murine sarcoma virus (MSV) was determined. Hybridization of RNA from transformed cells with the [(3)H]DNA product of the RNA-directed DNA polymerase of the murine sarcoma-leukemia virus was used to detect and quantitate virus-specific RNA. The amount of virus-specific RNA in non-virus-producing cells was less than one-sixth of that found in virus-producing cells. A striking correlation was found between the amount of intracellular virus-specific RNA and the degree of agglutination by conconavalin A previously reported for the four non-virus-producing NIH/3T3 cell lines (Salzberg and Green, 1974). A major RNA subunit sedimenting at 26 to 28S was detected in all five MSV-transformed non-virus-producing cells. This could represent the RNA genome of defective MSV.