Age class differences in the feeding behavior of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscataia) in the forested and nonvegetated enclosure groups

Age class differences in feeding behavior of primates are affected by many factors, including feeding competition, foraging skills, habitat type, food abundance and distribution, body mass, and food types. Two captive groups of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), one housed in a forested enclosure and the other in a nonvegetated enclosure, were studied to examine the effect of environmental enrichment on age class differences in feeding behavior. Although there was no significant age class difference in time spent feeding on provisioned foods in either enclosure, the feeding rate (intake of unit food/minute) of adults consuming provisioned monkey chow was significantly higher than that of immatures in both enclosures, and was faster for both age groups in the nonvegetated than in the forested enclosure. Overall, feeding time was greatly extended for individuals of both age classes in the forested enclosure compared with their counterparts in the nonvegetated enclosure. Immatures in the forested enclosure utilized a significantly greater number of plant species and food items, exploiting many food items available among the terminal branches, and spent significantly more time feeding than adults. Perhaps constrained by larger body size, adults fed more often on the ground or middle height of the trees, likely reducing competition over plant food resources between adults and immatures. The natural vegetation played an important role in extending feeding time and segregating substrate use during feeding by adults and immatures. This study revealed the benefits concerning environmental enrichment of a naturally forested enclosure, which provides captive primates the opportunity to exhibit age class and species-typical feeding behaviors of importance for their dietary maintenance and general health.     

The effect of urban and rural habitats and resource type on activity budgets of commensal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh

Macaques are characterized by their wide distribution and ability to adapt to a variety of habitats. Activity budgets are affected by habitat type, season, and food availability in relation to differing age–sex class and individual requirements. We conducted a comparative study on two commensal rhesus groups, one living in a rural village and the other in the center of urban Dhaka, Bangladesh. The study was conducted in three different seasons between 2007 and 2009 in order to evaluate how habitat type and season affects their behavioral activities. Differences in food type and its availability between these two habitats were mainly responsible for the variations in activity budgets between groups. Feeding time in the rural group was significantly longer than that in the urban group. In contrast, grooming and object manipulation/play were significantly greater in the urban than the rural group. Seasonal variations in all major behaviors were significantly affected by group, with more time spent feeding in summer than in winter/dry season, and more time spent grooming and moving in winter/dry season than summer in the rural group. In contrast, time spent resting was greater in the monsoon and summer seasons than the winter/dry season in the urban group. Grooming time was greater in the winter/dry season than the monsoon and summer seasons. In both groups, immature of both sexes spent significantly more time on feeding and object manipulation/playing and less time resting than adults. Adult females spent more time grooming than males and immatures, of both sexes, in both groups. Moreover, the rural group spent most of their time feeding on garden/crop produce and wild plant food resources, while the urban group spent more time feeding on provisioned foods. These results showed that differences in the activity budgets of rural and urban dwelling macaques were due largely to the differences in available food resources. Commensal rhesus macaques show a high degree of behavioral flexibility in response to habitat and resource variability, and knowledge of these differences is important for the conservation and management of highly commensal primates.     

Seasonal Variation in the Activity Patterns and Time Budgets of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis> in the Nonggang Nature Reserve,China

Activity patterns and time budgets are 2 important aspects of animal behavior that researchers use to investigate ecological influences on individual behavior. We collected data on activity patterns and time budgets in 1 group of François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) from August 2003 to July 2004 in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi Province, China, via instantaneous scan sampling method with 15-min intervals. The diurnal activity pattern of François’ langurs showed morning and afternoon feeding peaks, with a midday resting peak. Seasonal change was apparent in the activity pattern: 2 significant feeding peaks occurred in the dry season and only 1 significant feeding peak in the rainy season. The group spent an average of 51.5% of the daytime resting. Feeding and moving accounted on average for 23.1% and 17.3% of the activity budget, respectively. Subjects spent little time on social activities, averaging 2% for grooming and 5.5% for playing. Their time budgets showed significant seasonal variation: they spent a greater proportion of time on feeding and less time on resting and grooming in the dry season than in the rainy season. They also differed among different sex-age classes: immatures spent more time playing, whereas adults devoted more time to resting, feeding, and grooming. Correlations between time budgets and food items or food availability clearly indicated that François’ langurs might adopt an energy-maximizing strategy when preferred foods were scarce in the dry season.     

秦岭川金丝猴的昼间活动时间分配

1999年12月至2004年11月,通过野外直接跟踪观察,采用焦点取样和瞬时记录的方法,对秦岭川金丝猴西梁猴群的昼间活动时间分配进行了研究。将川金丝猴的昼间活动定义为摄食、休息、理毛、移动和其他行为5 种类型,结果发现：川金丝猴昼间活动中有两个摄食高峰,分别在每天的上午和下午,中午有一个较长时间的休息期。川金丝猴昼间的主要行为类型是摄食和休息（约占全部活动时间的62%）,各种行为依所占时间比例依次为：摄食（34.64 ± 1.70%）、休息（26.83 ± 1.69%）、理毛（11.58 ± 0.96%）、移动（18.93 ±1.08%）和其他行为（8.02 ± 0.82%）。在不同季节各种行为类型所占时间比例有明显的变化,表现为摄食和休息行为占昼间活动时间比例在夏（75.00%）、秋季（74.15%） 大于春（52.74%）、冬季（56.64%）;而移动、理毛和其他行为所占时间比例之和在夏（25.00%）、秋季（ 25.85%） 则明显小于冬（ 43.4%）、春季（47.3%）。不同季节间的活动时间分配经非参数检验（ Kruskal Wallis H test,N = 199）,理毛行为（ x² =11.438,df = 3,P < 0.05）有显著差异,摄食（x² = 20.469,df = 3,P < 0.01）、休息（x² = 27.235,df = 3,P < 0.01）、移动（x² = 24.110,df = 3,P < 0.01） 和其他行为（ x² = 60.810,df = 3,P < 0.01） 季节间差异非常显著;除摄食行为外,其余各行为类型的时间分配在不同性别-年龄组间也存在显著差异（P < 0.05）。     

广西扶绥黑叶猴活动节律和日活动时间分配

2002 年8 月至2003 年7 月,对生活在完全被周围农田隔离的石山中的一群黑叶猴的昼夜活动节律和日活动时间分配进行研究。采用以群为单位的焦点动物观察法和连续记录法,每月对猴群连续10 d 跟踪观察。结果表明:3 月至10 月,黑叶猴的昼夜活动节律由8 个环节组成,11 月至2 月由9 个环节组成,移动、觅食和休息在活动节律中重复出现,晒太阳仅出现在11 月至翌年2 月。休息占黑叶猴日活动时间的比例最大,其次是觅食、移动、晒太阳和理毛。黑叶猴的日活动时间分配具有明显的月变化规律,相关性分析表明,环境温度、栖息地的食物丰富度和光照强度是影响黑叶猴日活动时间分配的主要因素。进一步分析认为,黑叶猴的活动时间分配体现了叶食性灵长类的特点,更体现了黑叶猴对北热带喀斯特石山环境的适应特点。     

环境和社会因素对喀斯特石山猕猴日活动节律和活动时间分配的影响

2007年9月至2008年8月,以广西弄岗国家级自然保护区内的一大群野生猕猴为研究对象进行连续的跟踪观察,采用瞬时扫描取样法收集其食物组成、活动节律和活动时间分配的数据,旨在探讨影响石山猕猴活动节律及活动时间分配的环境和社会因素。结果表明：研究猴群的日活动节律表现为上午和下午的觅食高峰以及中午的休息高峰,这与白天温度和日照强度的变化有关。日活动时间分配中,休息42.1%,移动34.5%,觅食15.1%,玩耍2.0%,理毛5.2%,其他行为1.3%。猴群依据食物的变化调整活动时间分配,其中用于移动的时间与食物中果实的比例成显著的正相关性。不同性别年龄组个体的活动时间分配表现出显著差异,主要表现为成年雄性花费更多的时间休息,而成年雌性花费更多的时间觅食和社会性理毛,未成年个体则花费更多的时间玩耍。与同域分布的小群猕猴相比,本研究群花费更多的时间休息,较少的时间觅食。这些差异可能与盗食农作物有关。     

云南拉沙山黑白仰鼻猴群体规模对冬春季日移动距离和活动时间分配的影响

生态限制模型(Ecological constraints model)认为随种群规模增加,灵长类种群会增加日移动距离、移动时间和取食时间,减少休息时间.果食性灵长类为取食斑块分布的高质量食物资源(如果实)而存在群内分摊竞争(Within-group scramble competition),很好地验证了生态限制模型...     

三种笼养灵长类活动时间分配的比较研究

采用焦点动物法和连续记录法对3种笼养灵长类活动时间分配进行比较研究。结果表明,川金丝猴Rhi-nopithecus roxellanae和熊猴Macaca assamensis用于休息的时间多于猕猴Macaca mulatta,移动时间则相反;川金丝猴和猕猴用于理毛的时间多于熊猴。不同性别年龄组之间的活动时间分配有差异,主要表现在川金丝猴母亲用于理毛的时间明显多于成年儿子,用于玩耍的时间则相反;猕猴成年雄性的移动时间和理毛时间多于成年雌性,玩耍时间则少于成年雌性;熊猴成年雌性的移动时间多于成年雄性,与成年个体相比,幼体花更多的时间用于玩耍,而相应的减少了其休息时间。     

弄岗熊猴的活动节律和活动时间分配

2005年9月至2006年9月,采用瞬时扫描取样法,在弄岗国家级自然保护区对野生熊猴(Macaca assamensis)进行了连续跟踪观察,收集相关的活动节律和活动时间分配的数据,通过分析其与气候及食物组成的关系,从中探讨影响熊猴活动节律及活动时间分配的因素。研究结果发现:在熊猴的日活动节律中,觅食活动表现为逐渐增强的趋势,最高峰值出现在下午15:00,休息活动在中午出现一个小的高峰;其日活动节律表现出明显的季节性差异,主要表现为旱季大部分时间段的觅食强度均高于雨季,且早上7:00-10:00出现一段长时间的休息,而雨季里长时间的休息则发生在中午12:00-14:00;在活动时间分配上,熊猴平均花费39.6%时间用于休息,33.2%用于移动,18.3%用于摄食,5.1%用于理毛,2.4%用于玩耍,1.4%用于其他行为,其活动时间分配也表现出明显的季节性差异;与雨季相比,在旱季熊猴明显增加用于觅食的时间,而相应地减少用于休息的时间,活动时间分配的季节性变化明显与食物组成的变化有关;在不同年龄组个体间,青少年猴花费更多的时间用于玩耍,而用于休息和理毛的时间明显少于成年猴。     

Effect of Group Size on Time Budgets of Sichuan Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia National Nature Reserve, China

Group size influences intragroup scramble competition, which in turn influences time budgets in some primates, and may impact age–sex classes differently. There is a great deal of debate about whether folivorous primates, e.g., colobines, experience significant feeding competition. Unlike most colobines, Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) live in extraordinarily large groups and eat mainly lichens supplemented by seasonal plant food. We examined the effect of group size on time budgets in this species by studying two groups of different sizes in the same habitat in Shennongjia National Nature Reserve, China (study periods: August 2006–July 2008 for the larger group, November 2008–July 2009 for the smaller group). Results showed that the distribution of activities throughout the day did not differ between groups, but that time budgets did differ. Specifically, the monkeys spent more time moving and less time resting in the larger group than in the smaller group. Intergroup comparisons for each age–sex class indicated that adult females (but not adult males or juveniles) in the larger group spent more time moving and less time resting, and tended to spend more time feeding compared to those in the smaller group. The results suggested that increased scramble competition was occurring for adult females in the larger group. We provided preliminary evidence for the existence of intragroup scramble competition in Rhinopithecus roxellana.     

Environmental influences on mountain gorilla time budgets

Data on the time budgets of mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) were collected during field studies in the Virunga Volcanoes region of Rwanda and Zaire. Focal sampling was used to determine the proportion of time that individuals of different age/sex classes spent in several mutually exclusive activity states. The gorillas spent the majority of daylight hours feeding; most of the rest of the day was devoted to resting, with little time spent moving or engaged in social activity. The time budget varied among the different subhabitats used by the gorillas, and the gorillas satisfied subsistence needs more quickly when in areas where food was more abundant and/or of better nutritional quality. Silverbacks spent more time feeding than all other age/sex classes, but age/sex class differences were not great. All age/sex classes responded to variability in habitat quality in similar fashion. Unlike the case for many other primates, there was no significant seasonal variation in time budgets. There was a direct relationship between group size and time spent feeding, although variation in relation to group size was lower than that in relation to variation in habitat quality. These results are consistent with the relationship of feeding time to body size in primates. They are also consistent, with other evidence that social foraging entails a cost to gorilla females, but that this cost is low in comparison to those faced by many other primates. Permanent association with males apparently offers little ecological disadvantage to females, who are likely to be more than compensated by mutualistic benefits.     

栖息地质量对黑叶猴活动时间分配的影响

2005 年9 月至2006 年8 月,在广西弄岗国家级自然保护区和扶绥珍贵动物保护区各选择一群黑叶猴作为研究对象,采用瞬时扫描取样法收集相关的行为数据。通过比较两个地理种群活动时间分配的数据来探讨栖息地质量对黑叶猴活动时间分配的影响。结果表明:生活在低质量栖息生境的黑叶猴猴群较生活在高质量栖息生境的猴群花费更多的时间休息和觅食,而用于移动和社会活动的时间相应减少。分析表明,栖息地质量的差异所造成的食物可获得性以及食物组成的差异可能是影响黑叶猴群活动时间分配差异的重要因素。虽然不同活动的峰值在日活动节律中出现的时间存在差异,但总的日活动节律在不同地理种群中表现出相同的趋势,即早晨和下午出现两个明显的觅食高峰,而中午则是长时间的休息;移动的高峰通常发生在觅食高峰之前。     

白头叶猴日活动时间分配及其季节性变化

<正>活动节律和活动时间分配是动物行为学研究的两个重要方面,它们直接与动物的代谢和能量收支相关,但它们又会随环境不同不断调整。通过比较不同生态条件下动物的活动节律和活动时间分配,     

圈养阿拉伯狒狒日活动时间格局及季节差异

动物个体行为的生态效应主要反映在它们的活动节律和时间分配上.2012年11月至2013年10月,在杭州野生动物园,用瞬时扫描取样法对1群圈养阿拉伯狒狒的日活动节律和活动时间分配进行了调查研究.结果表明: 1)在活动时间分配中,主要活动(频次百分率≥5%)包括休息(42.5%)、游动(16.2%)、玩耍(10.0%)、摄食(9.8%)、理毛(9.4%)和观望(7.3%);频次百分率低于5%的称为次要活动,共4.8%.2)阿拉伯狒狒的活动时间分配具有明显的季节性变化,冬季摄食和观望时间增加,玩耍和理毛时间减少,但休息和游动行为没有显著季节差异.3)阿拉伯狒狒通常在上午和下午分别出现摄食高峰,并随着气温逐渐转冷,摄食活动逐渐增加,出现3个摄食高峰;这可能是动物在寒冷季节为抵御寒冷而采取的补充能量的一种策略.4)在温暖季节,阿拉伯狒狒只有中午一个休息高峰和一个理毛高峰,更多时间用于游动和玩耍,表现为多峰特征;在寒冷的冬季,休息行为也体现了多峰特征,但其游动、玩耍和张望时间节律并不与温暖季节有明显差异.因此,杭州地区圈养阿拉伯狒狒的冬季日活动节律与许多灵长类(如黑冠长臂猿、维氏冕狐猴和绒毛猴等)不一样,采取摄食增加能量,而非休息减少能量消耗的策略.总之,阿拉伯狒狒的行为体现出明显的节律性,且其活动节律具有季节性差异,这些可能是阿拉伯狒狒适应于圈养环境特有的食物资源和温度变化的影响而形成的.     

Energetic costs of parasitism in the Cape ground squirrel Xerus inauris

Parasites have been suggested to influence many aspects of host behaviour. Some of these effects may be mediated via their impact on host energy budgets. This impact may include effects on both energy intake and absorption as well as components of expenditure, including resting metabolic rate (RMR) and activity (e.g. grooming). Despite their potential importance, the energy costs of parasitism have seldom been directly quantified in a field setting. Here we pharmacologically treated female Cape ground squirrels (Xerus inauris) with anti-parasite drugs and measured the change in body composition, the daily energy expenditure (DEE) using doubly labelled water, the RMR by respirometry and the proportions of time spent looking for food, feeding, moving and grooming. Post-treatment animals gained an average 19g of fat or approximately 25kJd-1. DEE averaged 382kJd-1 prior to and 375kJd-1 post treatment (p>0.05). RMR averaged 174kJd-1 prior to and 217kJd-1 post treatment (p<0.009). Post-treatment animals spent less time looking for food and grooming, but more time on feeding. A primary impact of infection by parasites could be suppression of feeding behaviour and, hence, total available energy resources. The significant elevation of RMR after treatment was unexpected. One explanation might be that parasites produce metabolic by-products that suppress RMR. Overall, these findings suggest that impacts of parasites on host energy budgets are complex and are not easily explained by simple effects such as stimulation of a costly immune response. There is currently no broadly generalizable framework available for predicting the energetic consequences of parasitic infection.     

Effect of habitat quality on the ecological behaviour of a temperate-living primate: time-budget adjustments

Barbary macaques, like other non-human primates living in highly seasonal temperate environments, display high monthly variations in their diet. In addition, their diet changes according to the habitat type they colonize and to the degree of habitat degradation due to resource exploitation by local people, in particular through pastoralism. We studied the time-budget adjustments of wild Barbary macaques in three cedar–oak forests impacted by different intensities of grazing pressure from goats and sheep. We examined how diet variations influenced the time monkeys spent in their activities and their day range lengths (i.e. their energy costs). At three studied sites, diet composition and time budgets showed marked seasonal variations. Diet composition had a strong influence on monkeys’ time budget. In the forest where pastoralism was the highest, diet included a greater proportion of underground resources, shrub fruit and acorns, which led to an increase in the time spent foraging and moving, as well as an important increase in day range lengths. Energy costs were therefore higher in a degraded environment than in a suitable habitat. The monkeys living in forests subjected to pastoralism took advantage of increased day lengths to spend more time searching for food. However, in the forest with the highest pastoralism pressure, although monkeys spent more time foraging, they spent less time feeding than monkeys at the other sites. In addition, they appeared to have reached the limits of the available time they could devote to these activities, as their diurnal resting time was at its lowest level over several months. Temperature variations did not appear to modify monkeys’ time budgets. In the least favourable habitat, saving time from resting activity allowed monkeys to maintain a relatively high level of social activity, partly linked to rearing constraints.     

The Effect of Climatic Factors on the Activity Budgets of Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

Climatic conditions can significantly affect the behavior of animals and constrain their activity or geographic distribution. Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) are one of the few primates that live outside the tropics. Here we analyze if and how the activity budgets of Barbary macaques are affected by climatic variables, i.e., air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and snow coverage. We collected scan sampling data on the activity budgets of four groups of macaques living in the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco from June 2008 to January 2011. This habitat is characterized by extreme seasonal changes, from cold and snowy winters to hot and dry summers. The activity budgets of the macaques differed across months but not across the time of day (with the exception of time spent feeding). The monkeys spent significantly more time feeding or foraging when there was no snow than when snow coverage was moderate or major. Daily rainfall was positively related to resting time and negatively to time spent moving or in social behavior. Air temperature was negatively related to time spent feeding or foraging. Finally, time spent on social behavior was significantly lower when relative humidity was high. These data indicate that environmental factors significantly affect the time budgets of endangered Barbary macaques, a species that has been little studied in the wild. Our findings support previous studies on temperate primates in showing that snow coverage can have negative consequences on the feeding ecology and survival of these species.     

Effect of microhabitat on fitness components of larval tiger salamanders,Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum

Summary Survivorship and growth of larval tiger salamanders, Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum, in the White Mountains of east-central Arizona were compared in six microhabitats using field enclosures during summers, 1983–85. Microhabitats were vegetated and nonvegetated shallows, surface, middle, and bottom horizontal layers of limnetic areas, and the vertical limnetic water column. Initial enclosure densities (0.025 larvae per 1) were identical among microhabitats. Three enclosures were placed in each microhabitat in two ponds. Larval survivorship and growth were usually greatest in vegetated shallows in lowest in middle and bottom limnetic enclosures, despite several population dieoffs. Lower fitness, as reflected in survivorship and growth, in these latter enclosures was correlated with lower food levels, temperatures, and oxygen concentrations in deeper limnetic areas. Relative fitness varied greatly between years while food levels, temperatures, and oxygen concentrations within microhabitats remained relatively constant indicating additional factors affected fitness. Disparities in fitness between microhabitats apparently affect habitat use patterns of larvae.     

Sleeping Cave Selection,Activity Pattern and Time Budget of White-Headed Langurs

We describe the activity patterns and time budgets of white-headed langurs that were confined to about 4 km² of Longlin habitat in Fusui County, Guangxi Province, China. Between February and December 1996, we observed 6 langur groups monthly via group focal sampling and continuously recording the behavior of a focal group. Our results indicate that the langur groups selected stone caves on cliffs as sleeping sites. The daily activity pattern outside caves had 8 stages: (1) leaving the cave in the early morning; (2) moving and resting; (3) morning feeding; (4) moving a long distance; (5) resting at noon; (6) afternoon feeding; (7) moving back to the cave, and (8) entering the cave. Over the year, langurs spent a daily average of about 11.5 h outside caves and about 12.5 h inside caves. Moving accounted for 7% (spring), 7% (summer-autumn) and 13% (winter) of the time budget, and langurs spent 9% (summer-autumn) and 14% (spring) to 20% (winter) of their time feeding. Resting accounted for 79% of the time budget in spring, 84% in summer-autumn, and 57% in winter. Sunbathing only occurred in winter and accounted for about 10% of the time budget. One-way ANOVA and multiple range tests demonstrated that time budgets differed significantly among seasons. Langurs spent significantly more time feeding and moving in winter than in spring and summer-autumn, but significantly less time resting in winter than in spring and summer-autumn.     

湖北石首麋鹿昼间活动时间分配

为探讨性别、年龄和季节对麋鹿(Elaphurus davidianus)行为的影响,2006年9月-2007年10月,作者采用焦点取样法和瞬时记录法,将麋鹿昼间活动归为采食、饮水、运动、休息、警觉、其他行为等六大类型,每月6-8 d对湖北石首麋鹿国家级自然保护区麋鹿种群的昼间活动时间分配进行了跟踪观察.结果表明:麋鹿有晨、昏两个采食高峰和一个午间休息期,各种行为类型所占比例依次是:休息53.40％(±5.59％)、采食22.36(±8.34％)、运动11.23％(±0.63％)、警觉5.03％(±1.76％)、其他行为4.42％(±2.06％),饮水2.65％(±0.74％).不同季节,时间分配变化明显.非参数Kruskal Wallis H检验结果显示(n=120),季节、年龄和性别显著影响麋鹿的活动时间分配.除运动行为(x2=16.856,df=3,P＞0.05)和饮水行为(x2=7.667,df=3,P＞0.05)无显著差异外,采食(x2=15.657,df=3,P＜0.01)、休息(x2=13.173,df=3,P＜0.01)、警觉(x2 =13.887,df=3,P＜0.01)和其他行为(x2=16.317,df=3,P＜0.01)在不同季节所占时间百分比均有极显著差异.对不同性别年龄组的活动时间分配采用两个独立样本的Mann-Whitney U检验,各性别-年龄组间的运动行为所占时间比例有极显著差异(P＜0.01),雄鹿与雌鹿之间的警觉行为有极显著差异(P＜0.01),雄鹿花较多时间用于警觉.幼鹿与成年鹿及亚成年鹿之间的采食行为时间有极显著差异(P＜0.01).不同性别、年龄组在不同季节的昼间活动时间分配的差异采用方差(ANOVA)分析后发现:所有年龄组,夏季与冬季饮水、春季与夏季警觉均存在显著性差异(P＜0.01);成体和亚成体麋鹿,春季与冬季警觉、夏季与冬季运动均存在显著性差异(P＜0.01).