Food for folivores: nutritional explanations linking diets to population density

Ecologists want to explain why populations of animals are not evenly distributed across landscapes and often turn to nutritional explanations. In seeking to link population attributes with food quality, they often contrast nutritionally positive traits, such as the concentration of nitrogen, against negative ones, such as fibre concentration, by using a ratio of these traits. This specific ratio has attracted attention because it sometimes correlates with the biomass of colobine primates across sites in Asia and Africa. Although empirically successful, we have identified problems with the ratio that may explain why it fails under some conditions to predict colobine biomass. First, available nitrogen, rather than total nitrogen, is nutritionally important, while the presence of tannins is the major factor reducing the availability of nitrogen in browse plant species. Second, tannin complexes inflate measures of fibre. Finally, simple ratios may be unsound statistically because they implicitly assume isometric relationships between variables. We used data on the chemical composition of plants from three continents to examine the relationships between the concentrations of nitrogen, available nitrogen, fibre and tannins in foliage and to evaluate the nitrogen to fibre ratio. Our results suggest that the ratio of the concentration of nitrogen to fibre in leaves does sometimes closely correlate with the concentration of available nitrogen. However, the ratio may give misleading results when leaves contain high concentrations of tannins. The concentration of available nitrogen, which incorporates measures of total nitrogen, dry matter digestibility and tannins, should give a better indication of the nutritional value of leaves for herbivorous mammals that can readily be extrapolated to habitats.     

Intertidal mesograzers in field microcosms: linking laboratory feeding rates to community dynamics

Mesograzers (herbivores <2.5 cm) are both diverse and abundant, but their relative effects on intertidal communities have rarely been quantified. Here I examine the effects of crustacean and polychaete mesograzers on two intertidal resources, the red alga Odonthalia floccosa Esp. (Falkenb.) and the epiphytic diatom Isthmia nervosa Kütz. The mesograzers were hermit crabs (Pagurus hirsutiusculus (Dana) and P. granosimanus (Benedict)), amphipods (Hyale frequens Stout and H. pugettensis (Dana)), isopod (Idotea wosnesenskii (Brandt)), juvenile kelp crab (Pugettia producta (Randall)), and polychaete worm (Platynereis bicanaliculata (Baird)). Feeding rates on Isthmia, measured in the laboratory for different consumer species and size classes, scaled allometrically with body mass. Consumption rates were 2-23% of body mass daily on a fresh weight basis. However, feeding rates on Odonthalia did not scale, suggesting that size will not always indicate per capita effect. Mesograzer densities were measured on Tatoosh Island, Washington, USA. The mesograzer predicted to have the largest total effect (P. hirsutiusculus), based on densityxfeeding rate, was neither the most abundant nor the most voracious. The validity of these sorts of predictions depends on how well feeding rates measured in the laboratory approximate per capita effects under field conditions. Predictions were compared to observed effects in field microcosms. Given known numbers of mesograzers, predictions were made about the amount of Isthmia biomass that should disappear over 2 weeks from microcosms (9x9x12 cm) anchored in tidepools. Average per capita effects in field microcosms were correlated with laboratory feeding rates, but, for three species with significant feeding on Isthmia, effects were lower than feeding rates predicted. Feeding trials may overestimate community impact because they fail to account for alternative food, search times, resource productivity and stimulation of growth, or interference from other consumers. Nevertheless, densities of mesograzers can reach sufficiently high levels so that even feeble per capita effects combine to alter biomass of epiphytes and perhaps other small algae.     

Closing the larval loop: linking larval ecology to the population dynamics of marine benthic invertebrates

The majority of marine benthic invertebrates exhibit a complex life cycle that includes separate planktonic larval, and bottom-dwelling juvenile and adult phases. To understand and predict changes in the spatial and temporal distributions, abundances, population growth rate, and population structure of a species with such a complex life cycle, it is necessary to understand the relative importance of the physical, chemical and biological properties and processes that affect individuals within both the planktonic and benthic phases. To accomplish this goal, it is necessary to study both phases within a common, quantitative framework defined in terms of some common currency. This can be done efficiently through construction and evaluation of a population dynamics model that describes the complete life cycle.

Two forms that such a model might assume are reviewed: a stage-based, population matrix model, and a model that specifies discrete stages of the population, on the bottom and in the water column, in terms of simultaneous differential equations that may be solved in both space and time. Terms to be incorporated in each type of model can be formulated to describe the critical properties and processes that can affect populations within each stage of the life cycle. For both types of model it is shown how this might be accomplished using an idealized balanomorph barnacle as an example species. The critical properties and processes that affect the planktonic and benthic phases are reviewed. For larvae, these include benthic adult fecundity and fertilization success, growth and larval stage duration, mortality, larval behavior, dispersal by currents and turbulence, and larval settlement. It is possible to predict or estimate empirically all of the key terms that should be built into the larval and benthic components of the model. Thus, the challenge of formulating and evaluating a full life cycle model is achievable. Development and evaluation of such a model will be challenging because of the diverse processes which must be considered, and because of the disparities in the spatial and temporal scales appropriate to the benthic and planktonic larval phases. In evaluating model predictions it is critical that sampling schemes be matched to the spatial and temporal scales of model resolution.     

Integrating individual behavior and population ecology: the potential for habitat-dependent population regulation in a reef fish

We used the predictions of the ideal free and ideal despoticdistributions (IFD and IDD, respectively) as a basis to evaluatethe link between spatial heterogeneity, behavior, and populationdynamics in a Caribbean coral reef fish. Juvenile three-spotdamselfish (Stegastes planifrons) were more closely aggregatedin patch reef habitat than on continuous back reef. Agonisticinteractions were more frequent but feeding rates were lowerin the patch versus the continuous reef habitat. Growth rateswere lower in patch reef habitat than on the continuous reef,but mortality rates did not differ. A separate experiment usingstandard habitat units demonstrated that the patterns observedin natural habitat were the result of the spatial distributionof the habitat patches rather than resource differences between habitats. Our results do not follow the predictions of simpleIFD or IDD models. This deviation from IFD and IDD predictionsmay be the result of a number of factors, including lack ofperfect information about habitat patches, high movement costs,and higher encounter rates of dispersed patches. Our resultsdemonstrate that behavioral interactions are an integral partof population dynamics and that it is necessary to considerthe spatial organization of the habitat in both behavioraland ecological investigations.     

Using RNAi to improve plant nutritional value: from mechanism to application

RNA interference (RNAi) is an ancient mechanism of gene suppression, whose machinery and biological functions are only partially understood. Intensive studies have focused on developing RNAi technologies for treating human diseases and for improving plant traits. Yet application of RNAi to improving the nutritional value of plants for human and animal nutrition, and development of the related RNAi technologies are still in their infancy. Here we discuss current knowledge of plant RNAi function, as well as concepts and strategies for the improvement of plant nutritional value through the development of plant RNAi technologies.     

Pivoting plant immunity from theory to the field

<正>Plants live in complex environments and are constantly exposed to potential pathogens with different lifestyles and infection strategies.The evolutionary arms race between plants and their attackers has provided plants with a highly sophisticated and multi-layered defense system,which recognizes pathogen molecules and responds by activating defense pathways in order to resist the invaders.Here,we discuss recent developments in plant immunity,summarize conserved anti-microbial defense outputs and pathways,and     

Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field

Transgenic crops that produce insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) grew on >62 million ha worldwide from 1996 to 2002. Despite expectations that pests would rapidly evolve resistance to such Bt crops, increases in the frequency of resistance caused by exposure to Bt crops in the field have not yet been documented. In laboratory and greenhouse tests, however, at least seven resistant laboratory strains of three pests (Plutella xylostella [L.], Pectinophora gossypiella [Saunders], and Helicoverpa armigera [Hübner]) have completed development on Bt crops. In contrast, several other laboratory strains with 70- to 10,100-fold resistance to Bt toxins in diet did not survive on Bt crops. Monitoring of field populations in regions with high adoption of Bt crops has not yet detected increases in resistance frequency. Resistance monitoring examples include Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) in the United States (6 yr), P. gossypiella in Arizona (5 yr), H. armigera in northern China (3 yr), and Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) in North Carolina (2 yr). Key factors delaying resistance to Bt crops are probably refuges of non-Bt host plants that enable survival of susceptible pests, low initial resistance allele frequencies, recessive inheritance of resistance to Bt crops, costs associated with resistance that reduce fitness of resistant individuals relative to susceptible individuals on non-Bt hosts ("fitness costs"), and disadvantages suffered by resistant strains on Bt hosts relative to their performance on non-Bt hosts ("incomplete resistance"). The relative importance of these factors varies among pest-Bt crop systems, and violations of key assumptions of the refuge strategy (low resistance allele frequency and recessive inheritance) may occur in some cases. The success of Bt crops exceeds expectations of many, but does not preclude resistance problems in the future.     

Purple acid phosphatases from bacteria: similarities to mammalian and plant enzymes

Mammalian and plant purple acid phosphatases have similar active site structures despite low sequence identity (<20%). Although no bacterial enzyme has been purified, a sequence database search revealed that genes that could encode potential purple acid phosphatases may be restricted to a small number of organisms (i.e. myco- and cyanobacteria). Analysis of their deduced amino acid sequences and predicted secondary structures indicates that the cyanobacterial enzyme is similar to both the mammalian and the recently discovered low-molecular-weight plant purple acid phosphatases, while the mycobacterial enzyme is homologous to the fungal and high-molecular-weight plant purple acid phosphatases. Homology models indicate that both bacterial proteins appear to be similar to mammalian purple acid phosphatases in the immediate vicinity of the active site. It is likely that these enzymes act as Fenton-type catalysts in order to prevent damage caused by reactive oxygen species generated by invaded host cells (M. tuberculosis) or by the light-harvesting complex (Synechocystis sp.).     

Selection of the host's habitat by cercariae: from laboratory experiments to the field

The distribution of cercariae was studied in 18-cm-sized cuvettes under different lighting conditions, in Plexiglas cylinders (80 cm high) vertically placed in a pond, and when swimming freely in a pond. The vertical distribution and the effect of light intensity on it were relatively similar in the cuvettes, in the cylinders, and in the pond. Each of the species (Schistosoma mansoni, Diplostomum spathaceum, Echinostoma caproni, and Pseudechinoparyphium echinatum) showed its individual distribution within the water column, with distinct changes during the time after shedding. We hypothesize that the species-specific distributions in the water reflect behavioral adaptations to increase the chances of encountering the host spectra.     

Secondary types of food in the diet of a small-sized mammalian herbivore: from species ecology to habitat inferences

A macroscopic analysis of stomach contents is undertaken in the common vole, Microtus arvalis, obscurus chromosomal form in order to assess the patterns of non-herbivorous foraging activity of a herbivore distributed in different Eurasian biomes. The samples are collected in the Ural Mountains at midsummer (8 localities, 60° 38′ N to 51° 07′ N), and in winter (one locality, 56° 37′ N). Based on the frequency of occurrence and quantitative abundance in stomachs, photoassimilating parts of vascular plants are considered as the primary food category and inflorescences, roots, seeds, mycorrhizal fungi, arthropods, chitin fragments, colorless amorphous matter, and mosses are recognized as the secondary food categories. Although no alternatives to the primary food are found, some of the supplements substitute one another either geographically (fungi in the north versus mature seeds in the south) or by the vertical layers of habitats (seeds and arthropods in the herbaceous layer versus roots and fungi in the shallow layers of soil). Non-staple food consumption in different latitudinal zones at midsummer reflects spatiotemporal dynamics of food availability. From taiga to steppes of the Urals, the common vole is sporadically included in soil foraging but the consumption of mycorrhizal fungi (Glomerales) is only revealed within the zones of dark coniferous forests. The results suggest that the extents of inclusion of a herbivore in soil food webs might vary among ecosystems. In a paleoecological perspective, the analysis of stomach contents in a herbivorous micromammal might reveal fine-scale details of the habitats and provides insights into the stages of the growing season.     

Approach from the laboratory to the field: New strategies in the control of mosquito-borne infectious diseases

<正>Vector-borne viruses, transmitted among humans and animal hosts through bites of vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks,pose a great and ongoing threat to public health and biosafety(Yang et al., 2022).Among them, dengue virus-induced epidemics, have dramatically increased worldwide in recent decades. The report released by the World Health Organization(WHO) at the end of 2023 showed that dengue epidemic globally surged in2023, with the number of reported cases nearing a historical peak.