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1.
    
Pheromone‐binding proteins (PBPs) are distributed widely on the antennae of insects, and they are believed to be involved in the process of chemical signal transduction, but their interaction with chemicals is largely unknown. Here, we present our findings on the key amino acid residues of PBPs in the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar. Potential key residues were screened with the Calculate Mutation Energy program and molecular docking methods. Mutated proteins were obtained by mutating residues to alanine via site‐directed mutagenesis. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy showed that the mutated proteins formed α‐helix, and the stability of protein structure was influenced due to mutations. Fluorescence binding assays were further conducted with the mutated proteins, sex pheromones and analogues. Results showed that to PBP 1, tyrosine at position 41 and phenylalanine at position 76 could be the key amino acid residues influencing the stability of structure; in addition, phenylalanine at 36 and lysine at position 94 could be key amino acid residues interacting with chemicals. To PBP 2, glycine at position 49, phenylalanine at position 76 and lysine at position 121 could be the key amino acid residues in the structural stability. These results shed light on the relationship between the specific amino acids and functions of PBPs in transmitting the chemical signals.  相似文献   

2.
    
The ability of insects to learn locations of future resources has rarely been studied. Here, we show that males of the solitary parasitoid wasp Pimpla disparis Viereck (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) learn locations of future mates. Male P. disparis reportedly arrest on parasitized pupae of wax moth, Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), when mate emergence is imminent. We tested the hypothesis that male P. disparis identify, memorize, and revisit the location(s) of parasitized host pupae as a strategy to attain mates. We colour‐coded P. disparis males in the field and noticed that they revisit parasitized moth pupae on consecutive days, and arrest on those pupae with a near‐emergence P. disparis parasitoid. In a laboratory experiment with two large corrugated cardboard cylinders (CCCs) as surrogate trees, each CCC bearing two parasitized moth pupae with a near‐emergence P. disparis parasitoid or two pupae not parasitized, males on day 1 of the experiment visited parasitized pupae more often than pupae not parasitized. On day 2, when each CCC had been replaced and now carried pupae that were not parasitized, males returned to the same CCC, or the same micro‐location on that CCC, which on day 1 had carried parasitized pupae. Field and laboratory data combined indicate that male P. disparis learn the location of future mates. With female P. disparis being haplodiploid and capable of reproducing without mating experience, the onus to find a mate is on males. They accomplish this by detecting parasitized pupae, learning their location, revisiting them frequently, and then arresting on them when the prospective mate nears emergence, taking a 50% chance that it is indeed a female.  相似文献   

3.
    
We analyzed the population genetic structure and demographic history of 20 Lymantria dispar populations from Far East Asia using microsatellite loci and mitochondrial genes. In the microsatellite analysis, the genetic distances based on pairwise FST values ranged from 0.0087 to 0.1171. A NeighborNet network based on pairwise FST genetic distances showed that the 20 regional populations were divided into five groups. Bayesian clustering analysis (K = 3) demonstrated the same groupings. The populations in the Korean Peninsula and adjacent regions, in particular, showed a mixed genetic pattern. In the mitochondrial genetic analysis based on 98 haplotypes, the median‐joining network exhibited a star shape that was focused on three high‐frequency haplotypes (Haplotype 1: central Korea and adjacent regions, Group 1; Haplotype 37: southern Korea, Group 2; and Haplotype 90: Hokkaido area, Group 3) connected by low‐frequency haplotypes. The mismatch distribution dividing the three groups was unimodal. In the neutral test, Tajima's D and Fu's FS tests were negative. We can thus infer that the Far East Asian populations of L. dispar underwent a sudden population expansion. Based on the age expansion parameter, the expansion time was inferred to be approximately 53,652 years before present (ybp) for Group 1, approximately 65,043 ybp for Group 2, and approximately 76,086 ybp for Group 3. We propose that the mixed genetic pattern of the inland populations of Far East Asia is due to these expansions and that the inland populations of the region should be treated as valid subspecies that are distinguishable from other subspecies by genetic traits.  相似文献   

4.
    
The gypsy moth—Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus)—is a worldwide forest defoliator and is of two types: the European gypsy moth and the Asian gypsy moth. Because of multiple invasions of the Asian gypsy moth, the North American Plant Protection Organization officially approved Regional Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 33. Accordingly, special quarantine measures have been implemented for 30 special focused ports in the epidemic areas of the Asian gypsy moth, including China, which has imposed great inconvenience on export trade. The Asian gypsy moth and its related species (i.e., Lymantria monocha and Lymantria xylina) intercepted at ports are usually at different life stages, making their identification difficult. Furthermore, Port quarantine requires speedy clearance. As such, it is difficult to identify the Asian gypsy moth and its related species only by their morphological characteristics in a speedy measure. Therefore, this study aimed to use molecular biology technology to rapidly identify the Asian gypsy moth and its related species based on the consistency of mitochondrial DNA in different life stages. We designed 10 pairs of specific primers from different fragments of the Asian gypsy moth and its related species, and their detection sensitivity met the need for rapid identification. In addition, we determined the optimal polymerase chain reaction amplification temperature of the 10 pairs of specific primers, including three pairs of specific primers for the Asian gypsy moth (L. dispar asiatic), four pairs of specific primers for the nun moth (L. monocha), and three pairs of specific primers for the casuarina moth (L. xylina). In conclusion, using our designed primers, direct rapid identification of the Asian gypsy moth and its related species is possible, and this advancement can help improve export trade in China.  相似文献   

5.
    
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6.
    
The gypsy moth, a polyphagous herbivore species, infests mainly deciduous trees in the northern hemisphere, being invasive in North America. In Croatia, gypsy moth is infesting both continental and coastal forests, with the Dinaric Alps posing a physical migratory barrier between two regions. During outbreaks, caterpillars cause severe damages in both regions, though with different outbreak dynamics, which suggests genetic differences between populations. Representative populations from these two regions were screened by sequencing a region of the mitochondrial COI gene. Ninety‐nine sequences resulted in seventeen haplotypes, and analyses revealed a significant genetic differentiation between coastal and continental populations, quite likely attributed to geographic isolation and post‐glacial history. This differentiation arises from significantly higher genetic variability in Mediterranean population, indicating their higher adaptability, an intriguing fact in case of possible northward range shift of gypsy moth.  相似文献   

7.
    
Forest invasive alien species are a major threat to ecosystem stability and can have enormous economic and social impacts. For this reason, preventing the introduction of Asian gypsy moths (AGM; Lymantria dispar asiatica and L. d. japonica) into North America has been identified as a top priority by North American authorities. The AGM is an important defoliator of a wide variety of hardwood and coniferous trees, displaying a much broader host range and an enhanced dispersal ability relative to the already established European gypsy moth (L. d. dispar). Although molecular assays have been developed to help distinguish gypsy moth subspecies, these tools are not adequate for tracing the geographic origins of AGM samples intercepted on foreign vessels. Yet, this type of information would be very useful in characterizing introduction pathways and would help North American regulatory authorities in preventing introductions. The present proof‐of‐concept study assessed the potential of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, obtained through genotyping by sequencing (GBS), to identify the geographic origins of gypsy moth samples. The approach was applied to eight laboratory‐reared gypsy moth populations, whose original stocks came from locations distributed over the entire range of L. dispar, comprising representatives of the three recognized subspecies. The various analyses we performed showed strong differentiation among populations (FST ≥ 0.237), enabling clear distinction of subspecies and geographic variants, while revealing introgression near the geographic boundaries between subspecies. This strong population structure resulted in 100% assignment success of moths to their original population when 2,327 SNPs were used. Although the SNP panels we developed are not immediately applicable to contemporary, natural populations because of distorted allele frequencies in the laboratory‐reared populations we used, our results attest to the potential of genomewide SNP markers as a tool to identify the geographic origins of intercepted gypsy moth samples.  相似文献   

8.
    
Spatial synchrony, defined as correlated temporal fluctuations among populations, is a fundamental feature of population dynamics, but many aspects of synchrony remain poorly understood. Few studies have examined detailed geographical patterns of synchrony; instead most focus on how synchrony declines with increasing linear distance between locations, making the simplifying assumption that distance decay is isotropic. By synthesising and extending prior work, we show how geography of synchrony, a term which we use to refer to detailed spatial variation in patterns of synchrony, can be leveraged to understand ecological processes including identification of drivers of synchrony, a long‐standing challenge. We focus on three main objectives: (1) showing conceptually and theoretically four mechanisms that can generate geographies of synchrony; (2) documenting complex and pronounced geographies of synchrony in two important study systems; and (3) demonstrating a variety of methods capable of revealing the geography of synchrony and, through it, underlying organism ecology. For example, we introduce a new type of network, the synchrony network, the structure of which provides ecological insight. By documenting the importance of geographies of synchrony, advancing conceptual frameworks, and demonstrating powerful methods, we aim to help elevate the geography of synchrony into a mainstream area of study and application.  相似文献   

9.
    
Transmission plays an integral part in the intimate relationship between a host insect and its pathogen that can be altered by abiotic or biotic factors. The latter include other pathogens, parasitoids, or predators. Ants are important species in food webs that act on various levels in a community structure. Their social behavior allows them to prey on and transport larger prey, or they can dismember the prey where it was found. Thereby they can also influence the horizontal transmission of a pathogen in its host's population. We tested the hypothesis that an ant species like Formica fusca L. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) can affect the horizontal transmission of two microsporidian pathogens, Nosema lymantriae Weiser (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) and Vairimorpha disparis (Timofejeva) (Microsporidia: Burenellidae), infecting the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Lymantriinae). Observational studies showed that uninfected and infected L. dispar larvae are potential prey items for F. fusca. Laboratory choice experiments led to the conclusion that F. fusca did not prefer L. dispar larvae infected with N. lymantriae and avoided L. dispar larvae infected with V. disparis over uninfected larvae when given the choice. Experiments carried out on small potted oak, Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl. (Fagaceae), saplings showed that predation of F. fusca on infected larvae did not significantly change the transmission of either microsporidian species to L. dispar test larvae. Microscopic examination indicated that F. fusca workers never became infected with N. lymantriae or V. disparis after feeding on infected prey.  相似文献   

10.
    
Larvae of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), a generalist species, frequently encounter spatial and temporal variations in diet quality. Such variation favoured the evolution of high behavioural and physiological plasticity which, depending on forest stand composition, enables more or less successful exploitation of the environment. Even in mixed oak stands, a suitable habitat, interspecific and intraspecific host quality variation may provoke significant variation in gypsy moth performance and, consequently, defoliation severity. To elucidate the insufficiently explored relationship between gypsy moth and oaks (Fagaceae), we carried out reciprocal switches between Turkey oaks (Quercus cerris L.) and less nutritious Hungarian oaks (Quercus frainetto Ten.) (TH and HT groups), under controlled laboratory conditions, and compared larval performance between the switched larvae and larvae continuously fed on either Turkey oak (TT) or Hungarian oak (HH). We found that larval traits were most strongly affected by among‐tree variation in oak quality and identity of the host consumed during the fourth instar. Switching from Turkey to Hungarian oak (TH) led to a longer period of feeding, decrease of mass gain, growth, and consumption rate, lower efficiency of food use and nutrient conversion, and increase of protease and amylase activities. Larvae exposed to the reverse switch (HT) attained values of these traits characteristic for TT larvae. It appeared that the lower growth in the TH group than in the TT group was caused by both behavioural (consumption, pre‐ingestive) and metabolic (post‐digestive) effects from consuming oaks. Multivariate analyses of growth, consumption, and efficiency of food use revealed that early diet experience influenced the sensitivity of the most examined traits to less suitable Hungarian oaks, suggesting the development of behavioural and physiological adjustments. Our results indicate that lower risks of defoliation by gypsy moth might be expected in mixed stands with a higher proportion of Hungarian oak.  相似文献   

11.
    
Anastatus disparis (Ruschka) (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) is an egg parasitoid and considered a potential biological control agent of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Only male offspring of A. disparis emerge from single eggs of L. dispar in the laboratory, and A. disparis exhibits low parasitism on L. dispar in the field. We therefore selected several lepidopteran species with various body sizes to evaluate the optimal egg size for hosting A. disparis. In addition, we explored whether the nutritional content of a single L. dispar egg influences the sex of A. disparis offspring and why female offspring can be reared from L. dispar eggs in the field. The results indicated that host egg size decisively influenced the body size and sex ratio of the parasitoid offspring. Therefore, larger hosts, especially the largest eggs of Antheraea pernyi Guérin‐Méneville (Saturniidae), might increase the fitness of A. disparis females. Lymantria dispar eggs concealed in the larger egg shell of A. pernyi produced female A. disparis, suggesting that adult A. disparis should prefer hosts with larger bodies and that the nutritional content of L. dispar eggs did not play a decisive role in the sex allocation of A. disparis. The results also indicated that the egg mass and the fur cover of L. dispar egg masses might be the key factors inducing female A. disparis to lay female offspring in L. dispar eggs.  相似文献   

12.
    
The European gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) was first introduced to Massachusetts in 1869 and within 150 years has spread throughout eastern North America. This large‐scale invasion across a heterogeneous landscape allows examination of the genetic signatures of adaptation potentially associated with rapid geographical spread. We tested the hypothesis that spatially divergent natural selection has driven observed changes in three developmental traits that were measured in a common garden for 165 adult moths sampled from six populations across a latitudinal gradient covering the entirety of the range. We generated genotype data for 91,468 single nucleotide polymorphisms based on double digest restriction‐site associated DNA sequencing and used these data to discover genome‐wide associations for each trait, as well as to test for signatures of selection on the discovered architectures. Genetic structure across the introduced range of gypsy moth was low in magnitude (FST = 0.069), with signatures of bottlenecks and spatial expansion apparent in the rare portion of the allele frequency spectrum. Results from applications of Bayesian sparse linear mixed models were consistent with the presumed polygenic architectures of each trait. Further analyses indicated spatially divergent natural selection acting on larval development time and pupal mass, with the linkage disequilibrium component of this test acting as the main driver of observed patterns. The populations most important for these signals were two range‐edge populations established less than 30 generations ago. We discuss the importance of rapid polygenic adaptation to the ability of non‐native species to invade novel environments.  相似文献   

13.
    
Temperature‐dependent development, parasitism and longevity of the braconid parasitoids, Fopius arisanus Sonan and Diachasmimorpha longicaudata Ashmed on Bactorcera invadens Drew Tsuruta & White, was evaluated across five constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C). Developmental rate decreased linearly with increasing temperature for both the parasitoid species. Linear and Brière‐2 nonlinear models were used to determine the lower temperature threshold at which the developmental rate (1/D) approached zero. For F. arisanus, lower thresholds to complete development estimated with the linear and nonlinear models were 10.1 and 6.9°C, respectively. The total degree‐days (DD) required to complete the development estimated by the linear model for F. arisanus was 360. In D. longicaudata, the linear and nonlinear models estimated lower thresholds of 10.4 and 7.3°C, respectively, and the total DD estimated was 282. In F. arisanus, percentage parasitism differed significantly across all temperatures tested and was highest at 25°C (71.1 ± 2.5) and lowest at 15°C (46.4 ± 1.4). Parasitoid progeny sex ratio was female biased at all temperatures except at 20°C. In D. longicaudata, percentage parasitism was highest at 20°C (52.2 ± 4.0) and lowest at 15°C (27.7 ± 2.5). Parasitoid progeny sex ratio was female biased and similar for all temperatures. Adult longevity of both parasitoids was shortest at 35°C and longest at 15°C, and females lived significantly longer than males at all temperatures tested. Our findings provide some guidance for future mass rearing and field releases of the two parasitoids for the management of B. invadens in Africa.  相似文献   

14.
    
By definition, insect parasitoids kill their host during their development. Data are presented showing that ladybirds not only can survive parasitism by Dinocampus coccinellae, but also can retain their capacity to reproduce following parasitoid emergence. We hypothesize that host behaviour manipulation constitutes a preadaptation leading to the attenuation of parasitoid virulence. Following larval development, the parasitoid egresses from the host and spins a cocoon between the ladybird's legs. Throughout parasitoid pupation, the manipulated host acts as a bodyguard to protect the parasitoid cocoon from predation. The parasitoid has evolved mechanisms to avoid killing the host prematurely so that its own survival is not compromised. Bodyguard manipulation may thus constitute a selective trait for the evolution of true parasitism in some host–parasitoid associations.  相似文献   

15.
    
Artificial diets have been developed to sustain the mass rearing of a wide range of arthropod natural enemies, with varying success. In some cases, such diets can be optimized using insect‐derived materials, such as haemolymph. In this study, we examined the effect of supplementing haemolymph of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, to a basic artificial diet for the phytoseiid mite Amblyseius swirskii. The survival, development and reproduction of the predatory mite were assessed when fed on artificial diets composed of honey, sucrose, tryptone, yeast extract and egg yolk, supplemented with 5%, 10%, or 20% of H. illucens pre‐pupal haemolymph. Developmental time from larva to adult was shorter for males and females offered artificial diets supplemented with 20% haemolymph vs. the basic diet. The oviposition rate and total fecundity of females reared on the basic diet were substantially lower than those of females supplied with the enriched diets. The intrinsic rate of increase was highest on the diet containing 20% haemolymph, followed by those containing 10% and 5% haemolymph. In a subsequent diet‐switching experiment, mites fed on the basic diet in their juvenile stages were switched upon adulthood to diet enriched with different concentrations of H. illucens haemolymph. The females that were fed with the enriched diets from the adult stage on had higher oviposition rates and fecundities than those maintained on the basic diet, but their reproductive parameters were not significantly affected by the concentration of the haemolymph in the artificial diet. In conclusion, supplementing artificial diets with black soldier fly haemolymph significantly improved their nutritional value for A. swirskii. Our findings indicate the potential of using H. illucens as a cheap source for haemolymph in artificial diets, as the fly can be cost‐effectively produced at a large scale on organic waste materials.  相似文献   

16.
舞毒蛾Lymantria dispar (L.)是国际性检疫害虫。大蛾卵跳小蜂Ooencyrtus kuwanae (Howard)是舞毒蛾卵的重要寄生蜂, 对舞毒蛾有一定的控制作用。为了在规模化繁育大蛾卵跳小蜂时控制小蜂的发育进度, 设置不同的温度梯度研究了该蜂发育与温度的关系; 同时, 为了对替代寄主繁育出的天敌质量进行评价, 对利用其自然寄主舞毒蛾卵和替代寄主柞蚕Antheraea pernyi卵繁育出的子代成蜂的寿命、 胸宽、 雌雄性比进行了比较。结果显示： 大蛾卵跳小蜂的发育起点温度和有效积温分别为10.50±1.41℃和260.74±25.09日·度, 温度与发育速率的关系为T=10.50+260.74V。当采用30%的蜂蜜水饲喂成蜂时, 柞蚕卵繁育出的大蛾卵跳小蜂雌、 雄蜂的平均寿命分别为15.01和10.38 d, 采用原寄主舞毒蛾卵繁育出的雌、 雄蜂平均寿命分别为20.94和15.95 d, 两者差异显著; 采用柞蚕卵繁育出的雌蜂个体显著大于用舞毒蛾卵繁育出的雌蜂个体; 柞蚕卵和舞毒蛾卵繁育出的大蛾卵跳小蜂雌雄性比没有显著差异, 分别为2.42∶1和2.57∶1。结果表明, 在野外开展舞毒蛾的生物防治时, 释放利用柞蚕卵繁育出的大蛾卵跳小蜂具有可行性。  相似文献   

17.
    
Host defenses against parasites do not come for free. The evolution of increased resistance can be constrained by constitutive costs associated with possessing defense mechanisms, and by induced costs of deploying them. These two types of costs are typically considered with respect to resistance as a genetically determined trait, but they may also apply to resistance provided by ‘helpers’ such as bacterial endosymbionts. We investigated the costs of symbiont‐conferred resistance in the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae (Scopoli), which receives strong protection against the parasitoid Lysiphlebus fabarum from the defensive endosymbiont Hamiltonella defensa. Aphids infected with H. defensa were almost ten times more resistant to L. fabarum than genetically identical aphids without this symbiont, but in the absence of parasitoids, they had strongly reduced lifespans, resulting in lower lifetime reproduction. This is evidence for a substantial constitutive cost of harboring H. defensa. We did not observe any induced cost of symbiont‐conferred resistance. On the contrary, symbiont‐protected aphids that resisted a parasitoid attack enjoyed increased longevity and lifetime reproduction compared with unattacked controls, whereas unprotected aphids suffered a reduction of longevity and reproduction after resisting an attack. This surprising result suggests that by focusing exclusively on the protection, we might underestimate the selective advantage of infection with H. defensa in the presence of parasitoids.  相似文献   

18.
    
Studying the drivers of host specificity can contribute to our understanding of the origin and evolution of obligate pollination mutualisms. The preference–performance hypothesis predicts that host plant choice of female insects is related mainly to the performance of their offspring. Soil moisture is thought to be particularly important for the survival of larvae and pupae that inhabit soil. In the high Himalayas, Rheum nobile and R. alexandrae differ in their distribution in terms of soil moisture; that is, R. nobile typically occurs in scree with well‐drained soils, R. alexandrae in wetlands. The two plant species are pollinated by their respective mutualistic seed‐consuming flies, Bradysia sp1. and Bradysia sp2. We investigated whether soil moisture is important for regulating host specificity by comparing pupation and adult emergence of the two fly species using field and laboratory experiments. Laboratory experiments revealed soil moisture did have significant effects on larval and pupal performances in both fly species, but the two fly species had similar optimal soil moisture requirements for pupation and adult emergence. Moreover, a field reciprocal transfer experiment showed that there was no significant difference in adult emergence for both fly species between their native and non‐native habitats. Nevertheless, Bradysia sp1., associated with R. nobile, was more tolerant to drought stress, while Bradysia sp2., associated with R. alexandrae, was more tolerant to flooding stress. These results indicate that soil moisture is unlikely to play a determining role in regulating host specificity of the two fly species. However, their pupation and adult emergence in response to extremely wet or dry soils are habitat‐specific.  相似文献   

19.
    
Selection for increased litter size in swine has potentially resulted in a correlated increase in preweaning mortality. Additional selection criteria should be considered when selecting for increased litter size to account for associated decreases in piglet quality, specifically piglet survival, initial weight and growth. Traits such as gestation length (GL), which have been associated with piglet performance, could be utilized to improve piglet development and survivability. The objective of this study was to conduct a genome‐wide association study to identify genomic regions associated with GL in differing parities in swine (n = 831) from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln reproductive longevity project. Gestation length was calculated as the number of days between last insemination administered and farrowing. Sows were genotyped with the Illumina SNP60 BeadArray, and the data were analyzed using Bayesian mixture models for GL at parity 1, 2, 3 and 4 (GL1, GL2, GL3 and GL4 respectively). Means (SD) for GL1–GL4 were 113 (1.4), 114 (1.2), 114 (1.3) and 115 (1.2) respectively. Posterior mean heritability estimates (PSD) for GL1, GL2, GL3 and GL4 were 0.33 (0.06), 0.34 (0.07), 0.32 (0.08) and 0.20 (0.08) respectively. Rank correlations between genomic estimated breeding values between GL1 and GL2, GL3 and GL4 respectively were moderate: 0.67, 0.65 and 0.60. The top SNP (ASGA0017859, SSC4, 7.8 Mb), located in the top common genomic region associated with GL1, GL2 and GL3, was associated with a difference of 1.1 days in GL1 between homozygote genotypes (P < 0.0001). The results of this study suggest that GL is a largely polygenic trait with relatively minor contributions from multiple genomic regions.  相似文献   

20.
    
Parental care is a behavior that increases the growth and survival of offspring, often at a cost to the parents' own survival and/or future reproduction. In this study, we focused on nest guarding, which is one of the most important types of extended parental care; we studied this behavior in two solitary bee species of the genus Ceratina with social ancestors. We performed the experiment of removing the laying female, who usually guards the nest after completing its provisioning, to test the effects of nest guarding on the offspring survival and nest fate. By dissecting natural nests, we found that Ceratina cucurbitina females always guarded their offspring until the offspring reached adulthood. In addition, the females of this species were able to crawl across the nest partitions and inspect the offspring in the brood cells. In contrast, several Ceratina chalybea females guarded their nests until the offspring reached adulthood, but others closed the nest entrance with a plug and deserted the nest. Nests with a low number of provisioned cells were more likely to be plugged and abandoned than nests with a higher number of cells. The female removal experiment had a significantly negative effect on offspring survival in both species. These nests frequently failed due to the attacks of natural enemies (e.g., ants, chalcidoid wasps, and other competing Ceratina bees). Increased offspring survival is the most important benefit of the guarding strategy. The abandonment of a potentially unsuccessful brood might constitute a benefit of the nest plugging behavior. The facultative nest desertion strategy is a derived behavior in the studied bees and constitutes an example of an evolutionary reduction in the extent of parental care.  相似文献   

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