Net Assimilation Rate Determines the Growth Rates of 14 Species of Subtropical Forest Trees

Growth rates are of fundamental importance for plants, as individual size affects myriad ecological processes. We determined the factors that generate variation in RGR among 14 species of trees and shrubs that are abundant in subtropical Chinese forests. We grew seedlings for two years at four light levels in a shade-house experiment. We monitored the growth of every juvenile plant every two weeks. After one and two years, we destructively harvested individuals and measured their functional traits and gas-exchange rates. After calculating individual biomass trajectories, we estimated relative growth rates using nonlinear growth functions. We decomposed the variance in log(RGR) to evaluate the relationships of RGR with its components: specific leaf area (SLA), net assimilation rate (NAR) and leaf mass ratio (LMR). We found that variation in NAR was the primary determinant of variation in RGR at all light levels, whereas SLA and LMR made smaller contributions. Furthermore, NAR was strongly and positively associated with area-based photosynthetic rate and leaf nitrogen content. Photosynthetic rate and leaf nitrogen concentration can, therefore, be good predictors of growth in woody species.     

Effect of weedy rice at different densities on photosynthetic characteristics and yield of cultivated rice

In order to evaluate effect of weedy rice on the photosynthesis and grain filling of cultivated rice, cultivated rice ‘Nanjing 44’ was planted in the field under different densities of weedy rice ‘JS-Y1’ for two years. The results showed that net photosynthetic rate (P_N), net assimilation rate, grain filling rate, and the grain yield of cultivated rice all decreased with increasing weedy rice density. Furthermore, yield component analysis revealed that increasing weedy rice density had the most significant effect on the percentage of filled grains and the number of rice panicles. The correlation analyses indicated that the yield of cultivated rice was highly correlated with the net photosynthetic rate and the net assimilation rate. Our results illustrated that high density of weedy rice might cause yield losses in cultivated rice by inhibition of photosynthesis and grain filling.     

Variations in light energy dissipation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Woodfordia fruticosa</Emphasis> leaves during expansion

Young leaves of tropical trees frequently appear red in color, with the redness disappearing as the leaves mature. During leaf expansion, plants may employ photoprotective mechanisms to cope with high light intensities; however, the variations in anthocyanin contents, nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ), and photorespiration during leaf expansion are poorly understood. Here, we investigated pigment contents, gas exchange, and chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence in Woodfordia fruticosa leaves during their expansion. Young red leaves had significantly lower Chl content than that of expanding or mature leaves, but they accumulated significantly higher anthocyanins and dissipated more excited light energy through NPQ. As the leaves matured, net photosynthetic rate, total electron flow through PSII, and electron flow for ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate oxygenation gradually increased. Our results provided evidence that photorespiration is of fundamental importance in regulating the photosynthetic electron flow and CO₂ assimilation during leaf expansion.     

In situ estimation of net CO2 assimilation, photosynthetic electron flow and photorespiration in Turkey oak (Q. cerris L.) leaves: diurnal cycles under different levels of water supply

Diurnal time courses of net CO₂ assimilation rates, stomatal conductance and light-driven electron fluxes were measured in situ on attached leaves of 30-year-old Turkey oak trees (Quercus cerris L.) under natural summer conditions in central Italy. Combined measurements of gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence under low O₂ concentrations allowed the demonstration of a linear relationship between the photochemical efficiency of PSII (fluorescence measurements) and the apparent quantum yield of gross photosynthesis (gas exchange). This relationship was used under normal O₂ to compute total light-driven electron fluxes, and to partition them into fractions used for RuBP carboxylation or RuBP oxygenation. This procedure also yielded an indirect estimate of the rate of photorespiration in vivo. The time courses of light-driven electron flow, net CO₂ assimilation and photorespiration paralleled that of photosynthetic photon flux density, with important afternoon deviations as soon as a severe drought stress occurred, whereas photochemical efficiency and maximal fluorescence underwent large but reversible diurnal decreases. The latter observation indicated the occurrence of a large non-photochemical energy dissipation at PSII. We estimated that less than 60% of the total photosynthetic electron flow was used for carbon assimilation at midday, while about 40% was devoted to photorespiration. The rate of carbon loss by photorespiration (R₁) reached mean levels of 56% of net assimilation rates. The potential application of this technique to analysis of the relative contributions of thermal de-excitation at PSII and photorespiratory carbon recycling in the protection of photosynthesis against stress effects is discussed.     

GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION IN LEAF AND WHOLE PLANT PHOTOSYNTHETIC CAPACITY AND UNIT LEAF RATE AMONG CLONES OF PHLOX PANICULATA

A model population comprising five genotypes of Phlox paniculata was used to investigate differentiation in carbon assimilation amongst those genotypes. Three methods were used to measure carbon assimilation, single leaf photosynthetic capacity, whole plant photosynthetic capacity and unit leaf rate (ULR). Genotypes displayed no significant differences in single leaf photosynthetic capacity and that character did not have a detectable genetic component. However, genotypes showed significant differences in both whole plant photosynthetic capacity and unit leaf rate, and significant genetic components were found for both characters. The differences in whole plant photosynthetic capacity and unit leaf rate are related to differences in plant architecture and modular demography. Erect, self-shading morphs had lower whole plant photosynthetic capacity and unit leaf rate than prostrate morphs. The results suggest that the better measures of physiological parameters for use at the population level will be those which integrate over the whole plant rather than those which only measure performance of parts.     

Photosynthesis in the fleeting shadows: an overlooked opportunity for increasing crop productivity?

Photosynthesis measurements are traditionally taken under steady‐state conditions; however, leaves in crop fields experience frequent fluctuations in light and take time to respond. This slow response reduces the efficiency of carbon assimilation. Transitions from low to high light require photosynthetic induction, including the activation of Rubisco and the opening of stomata, whereas transitions from high to low light require the relaxation of dissipative energy processes, collectively known as non‐photochemical quenching (NPQ). Previous attempts to assess the impact of these delays on net carbon assimilation have used simplified models of crop canopies, limiting the accuracy of predictions. Here, we use ray tracing to predict the spatial and temporal dynamics of lighting for a rendered mature Glycine max (soybean) canopy to review the relative importance of these delays on net cumulative assimilation over the course of both a sunny and a cloudy summer day. Combined limitations result in a 13% reduction in crop carbon assimilation on both sunny and cloudy days, with induction being more important on cloudy than on sunny days. Genetic variation in NPQ relaxation rates and photosynthetic induction in parental lines of a soybean nested association mapping (NAM) population was assessed. Short‐term NPQ relaxation (<30 min) showed little variation across the NAM lines, but substantial variation was found in the speeds of photosynthetic induction, attributable to Rubisco activation. Over the course of a sunny and an intermittently cloudy day these would translate to substantial differences in total crop carbon assimilation. These findings suggest an unexplored potential for breeding improved photosynthetic potential in our major crops.     

植物光合作用限制因素与植被生产力研究进展

随着全球气候变化的加剧,陆地生态系统中植物光合作用限制影响程度的增加已成为降低全球植被净初级生产力的主要因素。系统了解植物光合作用限制因素是科学评估植被生产力的重要前提,也是缓解植物光合作用限制,增加植物光合碳同化能力的先决条件。对植物光合作用限制因素进行了系统解析,分析了光合作用三种限制因素生化限制(Biochemical limitation,l_b)、气孔限制(Stomatal limitation,l_s)、叶肉限制(Mesophyll limitation,l_m)的环境响应,重点讨论了叶肉限制及其影响机理,述评了光合作用限制定量分析方法及改善措施,最后以提高植被生产力为驱使目标,对未来植物光合作用限制因素研究提出以下内容：(1)基因工程技术与系统生物学数据相结合提高植被生产力;(2)气孔响应速度对植物光合作用的影响机制;(3)水通道蛋白(Aquaporin, AQPs)和碳酸酐酶(Carbonic anhydrase, CAs)感知环境信号变化的驱动基因。以期为未来气候变化背景下,深入认识和降低植物光合作用限制,提...     

Ammonia accumulation and inhibition of photosynthesis in methionine sulfoximine treated spinach

Ammonia accumulation and photosynthetic rate inhibition took place when spinach leaf tissue was supplied with methionine sulfoximine (MSO), an inhibitor of glutamine synthetase. This effect was observed in the absence of significant inorganic nitrogen reduction or an exogenous source of ammonia. Both the time lag prior to the initial photosynthetic rate decrease and the rate of that decrease depend on the O₂ and MSO concentrations supplied to the leaf tissue. However, the total rate of ammonia accumulation was similar at both 20% and 2.2% O₂. The decline in photosynthetic rate was not caused by stomatal closure but may be a result of ammonia toxicity. The data point out the importance of glutamine synthetase in preventing the poisoning of leaf metabolism by ammonia generated internally through processes not involved in net nitrogen assimilation. The rapidity of the action of MSO in suppressing photosynthesis was unexpected and should not be overlooked in interpreting data from other experiments involving that inhibitor. MSO shows promise as a tool for investigating C-N flow, particularly during photorespiration.     

增铵营养对小麦光合作用及硝酸还原酶和谷氨酰胺合成酶的影响

采用水培试验研究不同形态氮营养(NH4^+／NO3^-分别为0／100、50／50和100／0)对小麦光合作用及氮代谢关键酶活性的影响．结果表明,增铵营养较单—NO₃^-营养显著提高叶片叶绿素含量、净光合速率及可溶性糖含量,叶、根中可溶性蛋白质含量和叶片硝酸还原酶活性。而对谷铵酰胺合成酶活性影响较小．与单—NO₃^-营养相比。增氨营养下叶片较高的可溶性糖含量与净光合速率的提高相关。而维持较高的叶片和根系可溶性糖／可溶性蛋白质比例有利于氮同化和生长．因此,增铵营养下提高了叶片净光合速率、可溶性糖含量和硝酸还原酶活性。维持较高叶片和根系可溶性糖／蛋白质比例。从而促进小麦生长．     

枫香叶片衰老过程中光合能力的变化

利用Li-6400XT便携式光合作用测定系统,于2014年10—12月测定枫香叶片衰老过程中光合作用光响应曲线,采用叶氏模型和非直角双曲线模型进行模拟,分析枫香叶片衰老过程中光合能力的变化.结果表明: 随着枫香叶片逐渐变黄变红,其净光合速率的光响应能力逐渐降低,实测的最大净光合速率从叶片开始泛黄时的2.88 μmol CO₂·m^-2·s^-1下降到叶片衰老后期(12月8日)的0.95 μmol CO₂·m^-2·s^-1.2种光响应模型均较好地模拟了观测的光响应数据,其中叶氏模型表现更优.模拟得到的最大净光合速率、表观量子效率、光补偿点的量子效率、暗呼吸速率等参数均随枫香叶片衰老凋落而逐渐下降,反映出枫香叶片衰老过程中光合能力缓慢下降的过程.在树梢红叶未落期间,枫香叶片仍具有一定的净光合作用能力,这有利于增加秋冬季节的碳吸收量.     

Photosynthesis of soybean under the action of a photosystem II-inhibiting herbicide

Photosynthesis, the fundamental physiological process of plant responsible for the growth and yield of crops, is strongly affected by environmental stresses. Several methods have been used to study changes in the physiological parameters of plants exposed to stresses. The work aimed to study physiological parameters related to photosynthesis in leaf discs of soybean plants exposed to a photosystem II-inhibiting herbicide. Soybean leaf discs obtained from mature leaves of plants in the vegetative stage immersed in bentazon herbicide solutions at concentrations of 0, 100, 250 or 500 μM were evaluated. In experiment I, the effect of the herbicide on chlorophyll a fluorescence transient was measured using a portable fluorometer. In the second experiment, the effect of the herbicide on modulated chlorophyll a fluorescence and gas exchange were evaluated, with the latter being measured with an infrared gas analyzer. The evaluations of transient and modulated fluorescence provided additional information on the photosynthetic activity of soybean leaf discs exposed to the action of bentazon. For the fluorescence transient analysis, performance indices were the parameters most sensitive to the action of bentazon, showing a decrease of approximately 70 % at a dose of 500 μM. For the modulated fluorescence analysis, the photochemical quenching coefficient, the electron transport rate, the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II and the net assimilation rate, decreased in response to herbicide application, with values that were almost equal to zero at a dose of 500 µM, which are the parameters that showed the greatest sensitivity to bentazon in soybean.     

The life of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase--posttranslational facts and mysteries

The life of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), from gene to protein to irreplaceable component of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation, has successfully served as a model for a number of essential cellular processes centered on protein chemistry and amino acid modifications. Once translated, the two subunits of Rubisco undergo a myriad of co- and posttranslational modifications accompanied by constant interactions with structurally modifying enzymes. Even after final assembly, the essential role played by Rubisco in photosynthetic CO2 assimilation is dependent on continuous conformation modifications by Rubisco activase. Rubisco is also continuously assaulted by various environmental factors, resulting in its turnover and degradation by processes that appear to be enhanced during plant senescence.     

A review on the FvCB biochemical model of photosynthesis and the measurement of A-Ci curves

The biochemical model of photosynthesis proposed by Farquhar, von Caemmerer and Berry is a CO₂ response model based on photosynthetic processes. It hypothesizes that leaf CO₂ assimilation rate (A) of C₃ plants is decided by the minimum of three biochemical processes: the carboxylation rate supported by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration rate supported by electron transport and the triose-phosphate (TP) use rate. Fitting leaf CO₂ assimilation rate versus intercellular CO₂ concentration (A-C_i) curves with the modified FvCB model could provide several important biochemical parameters, including maximum Rubisco carboxylation rate, maximum rate of electron transport, TP use rate, day respiration rate and mesophyll conductance. The FvCB model has greatly improved our understanding and prediction of plant photosynthetic physiology and its response to environmental changes. In this review, we firstly described the FvCB model, and analysed the characteristics of this model: segmentation and overparameterization. We reviewed the estimation of biochemical parameters which by fitting A-C_i curves with the FvCB model. The biochemical parameters were estimated previously by segmenting subjectively and fitting each limitation state separately, whereas now by segmenting objectively and fitting all limitation simultaneously. In comparison to the previously conventional ordinary least squares (OLS), terativgorithms (eg. Genetic Algorithm, Simulated Annealing Algorithm) based on the modern computer technology are now in common use. However, to further improve the reliability and the precision of the parameters estimation, more studies about Rubisco kinetics parameters and their temperature dependence are needed. In the end, to obtain efficient photosynthetic data for biochemical parameters estimation, we integrated and modified methods concerning the measurement of A-C_i curves according to current knowledge about FvCB model fitting. We expect this review would advance our understanding and application of the FvCB model and A-C_i curves.     

Short‐term acclimation to warmer temperatures accelerates leaf carbon exchange processes across plant types

While temperature responses of photosynthesis and plant respiration are known to acclimate over time in many species, few studies have been designed to directly compare process‐level differences in acclimation capacity among plant types. We assessed short‐term (7 day) temperature acclimation of the maximum rate of Rubisco carboxylation (V_cmax), the maximum rate of electron transport (J_max), the maximum rate of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase carboxylation (V_pmax), and foliar dark respiration (R_d) in 22 plant species that varied in lifespan (annual and perennial), photosynthetic pathway (C₃ and C₄), and climate of origin (tropical and nontropical) grown under fertilized, well‐watered conditions. In general, acclimation to warmer temperatures increased the rate of each process. The relative increase in different photosynthetic processes varied by plant type, with C₃ species tending to preferentially accelerate CO₂‐limited photosynthetic processes and respiration and C₄ species tending to preferentially accelerate light‐limited photosynthetic processes under warmer conditions. R_d acclimation to warmer temperatures caused a reduction in temperature sensitivity that resulted in slower rates at high leaf temperatures. R_d acclimation was similar across plant types. These results suggest that temperature acclimation of the biochemical processes that underlie plant carbon exchange is common across different plant types, but that acclimation to warmer temperatures tends to have a relatively greater positive effect on the processes most limiting to carbon assimilation, which differ by plant type. The acclimation responses observed here suggest that warmer conditions should lead to increased rates of carbon assimilation when water and nutrients are not limiting.     

Interactions between inorganic phosphate (Pi) assimilation,photosynthesis and respiration in the Pi-limited green alga Selenastrum minutum*

Inorganic phosphate (P_i)-limited chemostat cultures of the green alga Selenastrum minutum were employed to investigate interactions between P_i assimilation, respiration and photosynthetic processes. Changes in net and gross gas exchange rates indicated that O₂ evolution decreases during photosynthetic P_i assimilation. Room temperature and 77K Chi a fluorescence measurements revealed that this photosynthetic suppression is correlated with a transition from state 1 to state 2. Substantial photosynthetic P_i uptake rates occur in the presence of DCMU and KCN. Additionally, the cellular ratio of ATP:NADPH increases following P_i enrichment, suggesting that the ratio of cyclic to linear electron flow is enhanced in response to the high energy requirements of P_i uptake. Net starch degradation was observed during photosynthetic P_i assimilation and the cellular pool size of 3-phosphoglycerate increased; however, gross gas exchange parameters and cellular metabolite pool sizes indicated that mitochondrial respiration plays a smaller role during P_i assimilation in the light than it does in the dark. These observations were used to formulate a model depicting possible interactions between photosynthetic electron flow, photosynthetic and respiratory carbon metabolism and metabolite exchange between the chloroplast, cytosol and mitochondrion during photosynthetic P_i assimilation.     

松嫩草地羊草叶片光合作用生理生态特征分析

对松嫩平原盐碱化草地羊草叶片的光合生理生态特征分析表明,晴朗天气条件下,羊草叶片净光合速率日变化呈双峰型,蒸腾速率属单峰型,叶片的净光合速率、蒸腾速率及气孔阻力在整个生长季受到多个环境因子的共同影响,不同时期起主导作用的环境因子有所差异,同一环境因子在不同时间对净光合速率、蒸腾速率及气孔阻力的影响程度不同,净光合有效国徽是对羊草光合作用影响最为强烈的环境因子,受环境因子控制最为显著的生理特征是羊草叶片的蒸腾速度。     

Nitrate transport in the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans

A significant progress in the knowledge of different aspects of nitrate transport in the unicellular cyanobacterium Anacystis (Synechococcus ) has been achieved in the last few years. The main contributions of our group are summarized in this article and discussed in relation to other information available. Endergonic accumulation of nitrate into the cells, indicative of the operation of an active nitrate transport system, has been experimentally substantiated and methods established to evaluate and analyze the activity of the system. Nitrate transport activity is sensitive to regulation exerted by products of both ammonium and CO₂ assimilation, thus providing evidence that photosynthetic nitrate assimilation in cyanobacteria is primarily controlled at the level of substrate supply to the cell. The expression of nitrate transport was also shown to be under nitrogen control, being repressed when ammonium is used as the nitrogen source. A 47-kDa polypeptide, which is a major plasma membrane component in nitrate-grown cells but is virtually absent in ammonium-grown cells, was identified as an essential component of the nitrate transporter. More recently, evidence of a strict Na'-dependence of active nitrate transport has been obtained, Δμ(Na⁺) appearing as the driving force of a sodium-nitrate symport system. Kinetic studies indicate also that the nitrate transporter may transport nitrite into the cell.     

Partitioning changes in photosynthetic rate into contributions from different variables

Changes in net CO₂ assimilation rate (A) are often partitioned into contributions from changes in different variables using an approach that is based on an expression from calculus: namely the definition of the exact differential of A, which states that an infinitesimal change in A (dA) is equal to the sum of infinitesimal changes in each of the underlying variables, each multiplied by the partial derivative of A with respect to the variable. Finite changes in A can thus be partitioned by integrating this sum across a finite interval. The most widely used method of estimating that integral is a coarse discrete approximation that uses partial derivatives of the natural logarithm of A rather than A itself. This yields biased and ambiguous estimates of partitioned changes in A. We present an alternative partitioning approach based on direct numerical integration of dA. The new approach does not require any partial derivatives to be computed, and it can be applied under any conditions to estimate the contributions from changes in any photosynthetic variable. We demonstrate this approach using field measurements of both seasonal and diurnal changes in assimilation rate, and we provide a spreadsheet implementing the new approach.     

Modeling the water use efficiency of soybean and maize plants under environmental stresses: application of a synthetic model of photosynthesis-transpiration based on stomatal behavior

Understanding the variability of plant WUE and its control mechanism can promote the comprehension to the coupling relationship of water and carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystem, which is the foundation for developing water-carbon coupling cycle model. In this paper, we made clear the differences of net assimilation rate, transpiration rate, and WUE between the two species by comparing the experiment data of soybean (Glycine max Merr.) and maize (Zea mays L.) plants under water and soil nutrient stresses. WUE of maize was about two and a half times more than that of soybean in the same weather conditions. Enhancement of water stresses led to the marked decrease of Am and Em of two species, but water stresses of some degree could improve WUE, and this effect was more obvious for soybean. WUE of the two species changed with psiL in a second-order curve relation, and the WUE at high fertilization was higher than that at low fertilization, this effect was especially obvious for maize. Moreover, according to the synthetic model of photosynthesis-transpiration based on stomatal behavior (SMPTSB) presented by Yu et al. (2001), the WUE model and its applicability were discussed with the data measured in this experiment. The WUE estimated by means of the model accorded well with the measured values. However, this model underestimated the WUE for maize slightly, thus further improvement on the original model was made in this study. Finally, by discussing some physiological factors controlling Am and WUE, we made clear the physiological explanation for differences of the relative contributions of stomata- and mesophyll processes to control of Am and WUE, and the applicability of WUE model between the two species. Because the requirement to stomatal conductance by unit change of net assimilation rate is different, the responses of opening-closing activity of stomata to environmental stresses are different between the two species. To obtain the same level of net assimilation rate, soybean has to open its stomata more widely to keep small stomatal resistance, as compared with maize.     

Herbivore-specific elicitation of photosynthesis by mirid bug salivary secretions in the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata

Herbivory is thought to be detrimental to plant fitness and commonly results in a metabolic shift in the plant: photosynthetic processes are typically down-regulated, while resource allocation to defenses is increased in herbivore-attacked plants, resulting in fitness costs of induced plant responses. Wild tobacco, Nicotiana attenuata, attacked by Tupiocoris notatus mirid bugs becomes resistant against more damaging herbivores through mirid-induced direct and indirect defenses. However, mirid-induced resistance and tissue loss do not result in a reduction of plant fitness. These findings suggest induced metabolic responses allowing the plant to compensate for the lost tissue and resources allocated to defenses. While feeding by Manduca sexta larvae results in a strong down-regulation of photosynthesis, we demonstrate a specific induction of elevated photosynthetic activity in N. attenuata leaves by elicitors in mirid salivary secretions. The elevated CO(2) assimilation rate is sufficient to compensate for the loss of photosynthetically active tissue and balances the net photosynthesis of infested leaves. We discuss the observed increase in the plant's primary metabolic activity as a mechanism that allows plants to alleviate negative fitness effects of mirid attack and mediates the vaccination effects that result in a net benefit in environments with multiple herbivores.