Study of the horizontal transfer of mercury resistance genes in natural populations of bacteria using antibodies to mercury reductases

Mercury resistant soil and intestinal bacteria were isolated from different mercury deposit areas of the USSR. Mercury reductases from all gram negative bacteria studied (Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and Enterobacterial species) with a single exception (Flavobacterium sp.) were immunologically cross reactive. Two immunological types of mercury reductases were found among gram positive bacteria (Bacillus, Staphylococcus and Coryneform species). Further subdivisions were done by "spur" formation tests. Despite considerable diversity of mercury reductases revealed in this study, we found several strains which belonged to distant genera but contained immunologically indistinguishable enzymes. This suggested that the horizontal spread of the corresponding genes occurred in these genera in relatively recent time.     

Horizontal transfer of multiple penicillin-binding protein genes, and capsular biosynthetic genes, in natural populations of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Multiply antibiotic-resistant serotype 23F isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae are prevalent in Spain and have also been recovered recently in the United Kingdom and the United States. Analysis of populations of these isolates by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, and restriction endonuclease cleavage electrophoretic profiling of penicillin-binding protein (PBP) genes, has demonstrated that these isolates are a single clone (Muñoz et al., 1991). Here we report studies of non-serotype 23F penicillin-resistant pneumococci isolated in Spain and the United Kingdom. One of the isolates expressed serotype 19 capsule but was otherwise indistinguishable from the serotype 23F clone on the basis of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, antibiotic resistance profiling, and restriction endonuclease patterns of genes encoding PBP1A, PBP2B and PBP2X, a result which suggests that horizontal transfer of capsular biosynthesis genes had occurred. These same techniques revealed that six other resistant isolates, all expressing serotype 9 polysaccharide capsule, represent a clone. Interestingly, the chromosomal lineage of this clone is not closely related to the 23F clone; however, the serotype 9 and 23F clones harbour apparently identical PBP1 A, -2B and -2X genes. To explain these data, we favour the interpretation that horizontal gene transfer in natural populations has distributed genes encoding altered forms of PBP1A, -2B and -2X to distinct evolutionary lineages of S. pneumoniae.     

环境中抗生素抗性基因的水平传播扩散

抗生素抗性基因作为一类新型环境污染物,其在不同环境介质中的传播扩散可能比抗生素本身的环境危害更大,其中,水平基因转移是抗生素抗性基因传播的重要方式,是造成抗性基因环境污染日益严重的原因之一.本文系统阐述了抗生素抗性基因在环境中发生水平转移的主要分子传播元件及其影响因素,这对于正确揭示抗性基因的分子传播机制具有重要意义.结合多重抗药性的传播扩散机制,探讨了行之有效的遏制抗生素抗性基因传播扩散的方法和途径,并针对目前的污染现状,对今后有关抗生素抗性基因水平转移的研究重点进行了展望.     

Horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in a membrane bioreactor

Growing attention has been paid to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in wastewater microbial communities. The application of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) in wastewater treatment is becoming increasingly widespread. We hypothesized that the transfer of ARGs among bacteria could occur in MBRs, which combine a high density of bacterial cells, biofilms, and antibiotic resistance bacteria or ARGs. In this study, the transfer discipline and dissemination of the RP4 plasmid in MBRs were investigated by the counting plate method, the MIDI microorganism identification system, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques. The results showed that the average transfer frequency of the RP4 plasmid from the donor strain to cultivable bacteria in activated sludge was 2.76 × 10⁻⁵ per recipient, which was greater than the transfer frequency in wastewater and bacterial sludge reported previously. In addition, many bacterial species in the activated sludge had received RP4 by horizontal transfer, while the genera of Shewanella spp., Photobacterium spp., Pseudomonas spp., Proteus spp., and Vibrio spp. were more likely to acquire this plasmid. Interestingly, the abundance of the RP4 plasmid in total DNA remained at high levels and relatively stable at 10⁴ copies/mg of biosolids, suggesting that ARGs were transferred from donor strains to activated sludge bacteria in our study. Thus, the presence of ARGs in sewage sludge poses a potential health threat.     

Horizontal gene transfer of stress resistance genes through plasmid transport

The horizontal gene transfer of plasmid-determined stress tolerance was achieved under lab conditions. Bacterial isolates, Enterobacter cloacae (DGE50) and Escherichia coli (DGE57) were used throughout the study. Samples were collected from contaminated marine water and soil to isolate bacterial strains having tolerance against heavy metals and antimicrobial agents. We have demonstrated plasmid transfer, from Amp⁺Cu⁺Zn⁻ strain (DGE50) to Amp⁻Cu⁻Zn⁺ strain (DGE57), producing Amp⁺Cu⁺Zn⁺ transconjugants (DGE_TC50→57) and Amp⁺Cu⁻Zn⁺ transformants (DGE_TF50→57). DGE57 did not carry any plasmid, therefore, it can be speculated that zinc tolerance gene in DGE57 is located on chromosome. DGE50 was found to carry three plasmids, out of which two were transferred through conjugation into DGE57, and only one was transferred through transformation. Plasmid transferred through transformation was one out of the two transferred through conjugation. Through the results of transformation it was revealed that the genes of copper and ampicillin tolerance in DGE50 were located on separate plasmids, since only ampicillin tolerance genes were transferred through transformation as a result of one plasmid transfer. By showing transfer of plasmids under lab conditions and monitoring retention of respective phenotype via conjugation and transformation, it is very well demonstrated how multiple stress tolerant strains are generated in nature.     

Plasmid transfer to indigenous marine bacterial populations by natural transformation

Abstract Horizontal gene transfer among microbial populations has been assumed to occur in the environment, yet direct observations of this phenomenon are rare or limited to observations where the mechanism(s) could not be explicitly determined. Here we demonstrate the transfer of exogenous plasmid DNA to members of indigenous marine bacterial populations by natural transformation, the first report of this process for any natural microbial community. Ten percent of marine bacterial isolates examined were transformed by plasmid DNA while 14% were transformed by chromosomal DNA. Transformation of mixed marine microbial assemblages was observed in 5 of 14 experiments. In every case, acquisition of the plasmid by members of the indigenous flora was accompanied by modification (probably from genetic rearrangement or methylation) that altered its restriction enzyme digestion pattern. Estimation of transformation rates in estuarine environments based upon the distribution of competency and transformation frequencies in isolates and mixed populations ranged from 5 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.5 transformants/1 day. Extrapolation of these rates to ecosystem scales suggests that natural transformation may be an important mechanism for plasmid transfer among marine bacterial communities.     

Horizontal gene transfer in bacteria: laboratory simulation, natural populations, genomic data

Various aspects of horizontal gene transfer among bacteria are considered: modeling of this phenomenon in microcosms and natural environments; influence of gene migration on the composition of natural bacterial populations; peculiarities of bacterial chromosome evolution.     

Horizontal gene transfer and bacterial diversity

Bacterial genomes are extremely dynamic and mosaic in nature. A substantial amount of genetic information is inserted into or deleted from such genomes through the process of horizontal transfer. Through the introduction of novel physiological traits from distantly related organisms, horizontal gene transfer often causes drastic changes in the ecological and pathogenic character of bacterial species and thereby promotes microbial diversification and speciation. This review discusses how the recent influx of complete chromosomal sequences of various microorganisms has allowed for a quantitative assessment of the scope, rate and impact of horizontally transmitted information on microbial evolution.     

Persistence of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations

Unfortunately for mankind, it is very likely that the antibiotic resistance problem we have generated during the last 60 years due to the extensive use and misuse of antibiotics is here to stay for the foreseeable future. This view is based on theoretical arguments, mathematical modeling, experiments and clinical interventions, suggesting that even if we could reduce antibiotic use, resistant clones would remain persistent and only slowly (if at all) be outcompeted by their susceptible relatives. In this review, we discuss the multitude of mechanisms and processes that are involved in causing the persistence of chromosomal and plasmid-borne resistance determinants and how we might use them to our advantage to increase the likelihood of reversing the problem. Of particular interest is the recent demonstration that a very low antibiotic concentration can be enriching for resistant bacteria and the implication that antibiotic release into the environment could contribute to the selection for resistance. Several mechanisms are contributing to the stability of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations and even if antibiotic use is reduced it is likely that most resistance mechanisms will persist for considerable times.     

Preparation of a DNA gene probe for detection of mercury resistance genes in gram-negative bacterial communities

A DNA gene probe was prepared to study genetic change mechanisms responsible for adaptation to mercury in natural bacterial communities. The probe was constructed from a 2.6-kilobase NcoI-EcoRI DNA restriction fragment which spans the majority of the mercury resistance operon (mer) in the R-factor R100. The range of specificity of this gene probe was defined by hybridization to the DNA of a wide variety of mercury-resistant bacteria previously shown to possess the mercuric reductase enzyme. All of the tested gram-negative bacteria had DNA sequences homologous to the mer probe, whereas no such homologies were detected in DNA of the gram-positive strains. Thus, the mer probe can be utilized to study gene flow processes in gram-negative bacterial communities.     

Preparation of a DNA gene probe for detection of mercury resistance genes in gram-negative bacterial communities.

A DNA gene probe was prepared to study genetic change mechanisms responsible for adaptation to mercury in natural bacterial communities. The probe was constructed from a 2.6-kilobase NcoI-EcoRI DNA restriction fragment which spans the majority of the mercury resistance operon (mer) in the R-factor R100. The range of specificity of this gene probe was defined by hybridization to the DNA of a wide variety of mercury-resistant bacteria previously shown to possess the mercuric reductase enzyme. All of the tested gram-negative bacteria had DNA sequences homologous to the mer probe, whereas no such homologies were detected in DNA of the gram-positive strains. Thus, the mer probe can be utilized to study gene flow processes in gram-negative bacterial communities.     

Artificial sweeteners stimulate horizontal transfer of extracellular antibiotic resistance genes through natural transformation

Antimicrobial resistance has emerged as a global threat to human health. Natural transformation is an important pathway for horizontal gene transfer, which facilitates the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) among bacteria. Although it is suspected that artificial sweeteners could exert antimicrobial effects, little is known whether artificial sweeteners would also affect horizontal transfer of ARGs via transformation. Here we demonstrate that four commonly used artificial sweeteners (saccharin, sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium) promote transfer of ARGs via natural transformation in Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1, a model organism for studying competence and transformation. Such phenomenon was also found in a Gram-positive human pathogen Bacillus subtilis and mice faecal microbiome. We reveal that exposure to these sweeteners increases cell envelope permeability and results in an upregulation of genes encoding DNA uptake and translocation (Com) machinery. In addition, we find that artificial sweeteners induce an increase in plasmid persistence in transformants. We propose a mathematical model established to predict the long-term effects on transformation dynamics under exposure to these sweeteners. Collectively, our findings offer insights into natural transformation promoted by artificial sweeteners and highlight the need to evaluate these environmental contaminants for their antibiotic-like side effects.Subject terms: Antibiotics, Public health     

Antibiotic exposure and resistance in mixed bacterial populations

Antibiotic use is often blamed for increases in the prevalence of infections due to antibiotic-resistance bacteria. This paper clarifies the effects of antibiotic exposure on bacterial antibiotic resistance by developing models that describe the growth of competing bacterial strains whose antibiotic sensitivities differ. The analysis generalizes logistic growth models to include first-order growth parameters that are arbitrary functions of antibiotic levels. It derives closed-form solutions for population size, composition, and average antibiotic sensitivities as functions of antibiotic exposure. Strategies to minimize the bacterial population size are analyzed in the context of the model. These heuristic models explore in formal terms the population dynamics thought to underlie resistance development.     

Selection on protein-coding genes of natural cyanobacterial populations

We examined the distribution of synonymous and non-synonymous changes in 12 protein-coding genes of natural populations of cyanobacteria to infer changes in gene functionality. By comparing mutation distributions within and across species using the McDonald-Kreitman test, we found data sets to contain evidence for purifying selection (hetR of Trichodesmium, nifH of Cylindrospermopsis raceborskii and rpoC1 of Anabaena lemmermannii) and positive selection (kaiC of Microcoleus chthonoplastes and rbcX of Anabaena and Aphanizomenon sp.). Other genes from the same set of clonal isolates (petB and rbcL in M. chthonoplastes and Anabaena/Aphanizomenon, respectively) did not harbour evidence for either form of selection. The results of branch models of codon evolution agreed fully with the results of the McDonald-Kreitman test in terms of significance and absolute value of the dN/dS estimates. The high frequency of gene-specific mutation patterns and their association with branches that separate closely related cyanobacterial genera suggest that evolutionary tests are suited to uncover gene-specific selective differentiation in cyanobacterial genomes. At the same time, given the lack of information about the history of cyanobacteria, analysis of larger numbers of protein-coding genes of clonal cyanobacterial isolates will produce more detailed pictures of the effects of natural selection.