Zooarchaeological analysis of prehistoric vertebrate exploitation at the Grand Bay Site,Carriacou, West Indies

This paper discusses zooarchaeological analysis of vertebrate faunal specimens from Grand Bay, a Ceramic Age (ca.ad 400–1300) site on the island of Carriacou in the Grenadines, West Indies. Using faunal data to assess subsistence patterns of vertebrate exploitation during late site occupation, we can begin to better understand Grand Bay procurement strategies and coral reef exploitation. Preliminary zooarchaeological results imply that Grand Bay vertebrate exploitation emphasized marine resources over terrestrial resources, with particular emphasis on coral reef habitats and fish. The faunal data are discussed in relation to common patterns of prehistoric vertebrate exploitation in the Caribbean and fishing strategies. The Grand Bay faunal sample also provides a foundation from which to formulate future research foci and question zooarchaeological approaches to understanding prehistoric coral reef exploitation in the Caribbean.     

Fishing degrades size structure of coral reef fish communities

Fishing pressure on coral reef ecosystems has been frequently linked to reductions of large fishes and reef fish biomass. Associated impacts on overall community structure are, however, less clear. In size‐structured aquatic ecosystems, fishing impacts are commonly quantified using size spectra, which describe the distribution of individual body sizes within a community. We examined the size spectra and biomass of coral reef fish communities at 38 US‐affiliated Pacific islands that ranged in human presence from near pristine to human population centers. Size spectra ‘steepened’ steadily with increasing human population and proximity to market due to a reduction in the relative biomass of large fishes and an increase in the dominance of small fishes. Reef fish biomass was substantially lower on inhabited islands than uninhabited ones, even at inhabited islands with the lowest levels of human presence. We found that on populated islands size spectra exponents decreased (analogous to size spectra steepening) linearly with declining biomass, whereas on uninhabited islands there was no relationship. Size spectra were steeper in regions of low sea surface temperature but were insensitive to variation in other environmental and geomorphic covariates. In contrast, reef fish biomass was highly sensitive to oceanographic conditions, being influenced by both oceanic productivity and sea surface temperature. Our results suggest that community size structure may be a more robust indicator than fish biomass to increasing human presence and that size spectra are reliable indicators of exploitation impacts across regions of different fish community compositions, environmental drivers, and fisheries types. Size‐based approaches that link directly to functional properties of fish communities, and are relatively insensitive to abiotic variation across biogeographic regions, offer great potential for developing our understanding of fishing impacts in coral reef ecosystems.     

Resource limitation and recruitment patterns in a coral reef fish assemblage

The potential effects of food and shelter availability on the recruitment and early survivorship of coral reef fishes were studied on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. The faunal assemblage studied included diurnally active fishes found in the “rubble/sand” habitat. The most abundant members were: beaugregory, Stegastes leucostictus (Muller & Troschel), goldspotted goby, Gnatholepis thompsoni Jordan, bridled goby, Coryphopterus glaucofraenum Gill, surgeonfishes, Acanthurus bahianus Castelnau and A. chirurgus (Bloch), and French grunt, Haemulon flavolineatum (Desmarest). Comparisons of recruitment to reefs constructed from substrata that varied in morphological characteristics showed that there were differences in the relative abundances of recruits attracted to and/or surviving on the different reef types. Juveniles of most species appeared to prefer the branching coral Porites porites (Pallas), which provided a large number of small crevices between the branches.Manipulations of the availability of shelter sites for fishes demonstrated that recruitment and/or early survivorship were strongly limited by the number of refuges. This result was found in six separate carried out during different years and in different seasons. Shelter site availability presumably limits fish populations through its effects on prédation rates.Experimental manipulations of food availability indicated that food does not directly influence settlement or early survivorship of coral reef fishes. However, it is probable that correlations between habitat characteristics and food availability have influenced the evolution of settling preferences.     

Coral reef cascades and the indirect effects of predator removal by exploitation

Fisheries exploitation provides the opportunity to examine the ecosystem‐scale biodiversity consequences of predator removal. We document predatory reef fish densities, coral‐eating starfish densities and coral reef structure along a 13‐island gradient of subsistence exploitation in Fiji. Along the fishing intensity gradient, predator densities declined by 61% and starfish densities increased by three orders of magnitude. Reef‐building corals and coralline algae declined by 35% and were replaced by non‐reef building taxa (mainly filamentous algae), as a result of starfish predation. Starfish populations exhibited thresholds and Allee‐type dynamics: population growth was negative under light fishing intensities and high predator densities, and positive on islands with higher fishing intensities and low predator densities. These results suggest the depletion of functionally important consumer species by exploitation can indirectly influence coral reef ecosystem structure and function at the scale of islands.     

Human,Oceanographic and Habitat Drivers of Central and Western Pacific Coral Reef Fish Assemblages

Coral reefs around US- and US-affiliated Pacific islands and atolls span wide oceanographic gradients and levels of human impact. Here we examine the relative influence of these factors on coral reef fish biomass, using data from a consistent large-scale ecosystem monitoring program conducted by scientific divers over the course of >2,000 hours of underwater observation at 1,934 sites, across ~40 islands and atolls. Consistent with previous smaller-scale studies, our results show sharp declines in reef fish biomass at relatively low human population density, followed by more gradual declines as human population density increased further. Adjusting for other factors, the highest levels of oceanic productivity among our study locations were associated with more than double the biomass of reef fishes (including ~4 times the biomass of planktivores and piscivores) compared to islands with lowest oceanic productivity. Our results emphasize that coral reef areas do not all have equal ability to sustain large reef fish stocks, and that what is natural varies significantly amongst locations. Comparisons of biomass estimates derived from visual surveys with predicted biomass in the absence of humans indicated that total reef fish biomass was depleted by 61% to 69% at populated islands in the Mariana Archipelago; by 20% to 78% in the Main Hawaiian islands; and by 21% to 56% in American Samoa.     

Components of fertilization success in the bluehead wrasse, Thalassoma bifasciatum

In many species of marine organisms, males and females releasegametes directly into the water column. Although free-spawningmarine invertebrates appear to have highly variable fertilizationsuccess, in tropical reef fishes the average fertilizationsuccess is quite high, typically over 90%; nevertheless, substantialvariation has been reported, and fertilization has a directeffect on fitness. We investigated the factors affecting fertilization success in natural spawnings of the bluehead wrasse, Thalassoma bifasciatum. During a two-year study at a site in St. Croix,we found extensive and predictable variation in fertilizationsuccess in pair spawns of this reef fish. Fertilization successaveraged 95%, but was affected by the amount of sperm released,the water velocity at a site, the mating success of the male,and the size of the female. As sperm released in a spawn increases, and as water velocity at a site decreases, sperm concentrationsshould remain higher in the vicinity of eggs for a longer periodof time, and both of these factors are correlated with increasingfertilization success. The recent history of individuals withpartners or sites did not affect the fertilization successof their spawn. In an evolutionary context, the real and predictable variance in fertilization success in this species may influencethe mating choices of males and females. However, there iscurrently no evidence that females use differences in fertilizationsuccess among males or sites in their reproductive decisions.     

Evaluation of a conservation strategy: a spawning aggregation closure for red hind, Epinephelus guttatus, in the U.S. Virgin Islands

Many tropical reef fishes spawn in large aggregations, which are readily targeted by fishers. By the 1980s, at least two grouper spawning aggregations were eliminated by intensive fishing off the island of St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, and another aggregating species, red hind, was intensively targeted. By 1988, the average length of red hind had greatly decreased to 295 mm, and the sex ratio was extremely skewed to 15 females per male, suggesting a heavily fished stock. Since this species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, the loss of large individuals (primarily males) could potentially result in sperm limitation in spawning aggregations. In 1990, a spawning aggregation closure was implemented. By 1997, average size of red hind had increased to 395 mm and sex ratio had shifted to 4 females per male. Fish were observed aggregating only in structurally complex habitat along the insular shelf edge. This habitat type is apparently not common along most of the shelf edge off St. Thomas and may provide shelter while reducing risk of predation during aggregation periods. These data suggest that protection of spawning aggregations is a sound management strategy with considerable potential for aiding the sustainable use of reef fish resources.     

Progress Towards the Eradication of Amblyomma variegatum from the Caribbean

Progress in the Caribbean Amblyomma Program (CAP) is reviewed since its inception in 1995 when regional eradication activities for Amblyomma variegatum ticks were initiated using Bayticol pour-on. Technical achievements in the various islands were slow initially, and showed a wide diversity in attaining eradication targets. St. Kitts, considered as a model program, eliminated the tropical Bont tick (TBT) from most of the island in less than 3 years. However, the elimination of very low numbers of residual adult TBT that persisted in three ‘hot-spots’ took another 3 years. A similar problem was faced in St. Lucia, although the approach there was to cull the wild cattle in the last remaining hot-spot. Both islands were certified as ‘Provisionally free from TBT’ in November 2001. In 2002, Anguilla and Montserrat attained the same status, and Barbados and Dominica also qualify for certification. Certification is based on strict, three-monthly, surveillance criteria: essentially, two successive TBT-free surveillance rounds on a statistically acceptable sample of the livestock population. Within the responsibility of the CAP, three islands remain TBT-infested, Antigua, Nevis, and St. Martin/St. Maarten. Nevis is of concern because it has been operational since late 1995, and appears unable to resolve the problem of treating stray small ruminants. Current funding should be adequate to complete eradication on Nevis and in St. Martin/St. Maarten. The major outstanding challenge is Antigua. In comparison to other islands they have the largest number of livestock, and have much larger populations than originally reported: sheep and goats are 4–5-fold higher, and cattle are 1.35-fold higher. The cost for Bayticol is, therefore, almost double and an additional US$ 1.5 million is required for that commodity alone. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Size-structural shifts reveal intensity of exploitation in coral reef fisheries

Fisheries exploitation represents a considerable threat to coral reef fish resources because even modest levels of extraction can alter ecological dynamics via shifts of stock size, species composition, and size-structure of the fish assemblage. Although species occupying higher trophic groups are known to suffer the majority of exploitative effects, changes in composition among lower trophic groups may be major, though are not frequently explored. Using size-based biomass spectrum analysis, we investigate the effects of fishing on the size-structure of coral reef fish assemblages spanning four geopolitical regions and determine if patterns of exploitation vary across trophic groups. Our analyses reveal striking evidence for the variety of effects fisheries exploitation can have on coral reef fish assemblages. When examining biomass spectra across the entire fish assemblage we found consistent evidence of size-specific exploitation, in which large-bodied individuals experience disproportionate reductions. The pattern was paralleled by and likely driven by, strongly size-specific reductions among top predators. In contrast, evidence of exploitation patterns was variable among lower trophic groups, in many cases including evidence of reductions across all size classes. The breadth of size classes and trophic groups that showed evidence of exploitation related positively to local human population density and diversity of fishing methods employed. Our findings highlight the complexity of coral reef fisheries and that the effects of exploitation on coral reefs can be realized throughout the entire fish assemblage, across multiple trophic groups and not solely restricted to large-bodied top-predators. Size-specific changes among fishes of lower trophic groups likely lead to altered ecological functioning of heavily exploited coral reefs. Together these findings reinforce the value of taking a multi-trophic group approach to monitoring and managing coral reef fisheries.     

Ichthyofauna associated to Thalassia testudinum at Lobos reef, Veracruz, Mexico: diversity and abundance

The diversity and abundance of ichthyofauna associated with Thalassia testudinum in the Lobos coral reef, Veracruz, Mexico, were studied in September and October 2002. Thirty six visual censuses in four sample sites were made using a 50 x 2 m transect belt. On each census, fish species, abundance and size were recorded. Leaf size and cover of T. testudinum were estimated. The similarity of fish groups was calculated with the Gower coefficient. The most abundant coral reef fishes were: Scarus iseri, Halichoeres bivittatus, Sparisoma radians, Stegastes adustus and Stegastes leucostictus. The highest density (0.04078 ind/m2) and biomass (0.72408 g/m2) of fish species were recorded in site II, where leaf size was greater (30.8 cm). The analysis of variance showed significant differences between sites in leaf size (F = 18.30856; p = 0.00001) and cover (H = 33.8119; p = 0.00001). These differences suggest a relationship between fish diversity and abundance, and T. testudinum leaf size and cover. The Gower similarity index produced two groups of fishes; one of them (site II) showed the highest abundance. In this reef, the fishes associated to sea grasses seem to reflect the characteristics of T. testudinum.     

Habitat specialization in tropical continental shelf demersal fish assemblages

The implications of shallow water impacts such as fishing and climate change on fish assemblages are generally considered in isolation from the distribution and abundance of these fish assemblages in adjacent deeper waters. We investigate the abundance and length of demersal fish assemblages across a section of tropical continental shelf at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, to identify fish and fish habitat relationships across steep gradients in depth and in different benthic habitat types. The assemblage composition of demersal fish were assessed from baited remote underwater stereo-video samples (n = 304) collected from 16 depth and habitat combinations. Samples were collected across a depth range poorly represented in the literature from the fringing reef lagoon (1-10 m depth), down the fore reef slope to the reef base (10-30 m depth) then across the adjacent continental shelf (30-110 m depth). Multivariate analyses showed that there were distinctive fish assemblages and different sized fish were associated with each habitat/depth category. Species richness, MaxN and diversity declined with depth, while average length and trophic level increased. The assemblage structure, diversity, size and trophic structure of demersal fishes changes from shallow inshore habitats to deeper water habitats. More habitat specialists (unique species per habitat/depth category) were associated with the reef slope and reef base than other habitats, but offshore sponge-dominated habitats and inshore coral-dominated reef also supported unique species. This suggests that marine protected areas in shallow coral-dominated reef habitats may not adequately protect those species whose depth distribution extends beyond shallow habitats, or other significant elements of demersal fish biodiversity. The ontogenetic habitat partitioning which is characteristic of many species, suggests that to maintain entire species life histories it is necessary to protect corridors of connected habitats through which fish can migrate.     

Biogeography and the structure of coral reef fish communities on isolated islands

Aim To determine the applicability of biogeographical and ecological theory to marine species at two remote island locations. This study examines how biogeography, isolation and species geographic range size influence patterns of species richness, endemism, species composition and the abundance of coral reef fishes. Location Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean. Methods Published species lists and underwater visual surveys were used to determine species richness, endemism, species composition and abundance of reef fishes at the islands. These data were statistically compared with patterns of species composition and abundance from the neighbouring ‘mainland’ Indonesian region. Results The two isolated reef fish communities were species‐poor and contained a distinct taxonomic composition with an overrepresentation of species with high dispersal potential. Despite low species richness, we found no evidence of density compensation, with population densities on the islands similar to those of species‐rich mainland assemblages. The mix of Indian and Pacific Ocean species and the proportional representations of the various regional faunas in the assemblages were not influenced by the relative proximity of the islands to different biogeographical provinces. Moreover, species at the edge of their range did not have a lower abundance than species at the centre of their range, and endemic species had substantially higher abundances than widespread species. At both locations, endemism was low (less than 1.2% of the community); this may be because the locations are not sufficiently isolated or old enough to promote the evolution of endemic species. Main conclusions The patterns observed generally conform to terrestrial biogeographical theory, suggesting that similar processes may be influencing species richness and community composition in reef fish communities at these remote islands. However, species abundances differed from typical terrestrial patterns, and this may be because of the life history of reef fishes and the processes maintaining isolated populations.     

Community structure and diet of roving herbivorous reef fishes in the Abrolhos Archipelago, south-western Atlantic

Community structure and diet of roving herbivorous reef fishes were analysed in 13 study sites around the five islands of the Abrolhos Archipelago, north-eastern Brazil (17°58' S; 38°42' W). This area has been part of the Abrolhos Marine National Park since 1983. Abundances and diets of fishes within the families Scaridae, Acanthuridae and Kyphosidae were compared among groups of sites differing in benthic community structure and exposure regime. The abundance of roving herbivorous fishes was higher in shallower sites than in deeper sites. At all study sites, observations of total herbivorous reef fish community structure revealed that 64% of fishes were acanthurids, 33% were scarids and only 4% were kyphosids. This pattern was predominant in all study sites. The majority of fishes examined in this study had the bulk of their diet based on both algae (35–90%) and detritus (35–65%). Among groups of algae, filamentous algae were the most commonly consumed as the majority of roving herbivorous fishes in Abrolhos feed as scrapers and excavators. The exceptions were the kyphosids, which had a diet consisting primarily of macroalgae (mainly Phaeophyta), and Acanthurus coeruleus that consumed mainly turf algae and very little detritus. The data collected indicate that roving herbivorous fishes in the Abrolhos Archipelago are more abundant at calm sites where detritus and delicate algae, their major food resources, are more abundant. The results presented here, along with underwater observations, suggest that the abundance and diet of these three fish families are associated with substratum cover.     

Pomphorhynchus heronensis and restricted movement of Lutjanus carponotatus on the Great Barrier Reef

Samples of Lutjanus carponotatus (Lutjanidae) from reef flat (shallow) and reef slope (deep) sites around Heron and Wistari reefs on the southern Great Barrier Reef were examined for Pomphorhynchus heronensis (Acanthocephala). Individual fish from the reef slope had 0-9 (2.6) worms as compared with 1-122 (39.6) worms for individuals from the reef flat (P < 0.0001). Other variables (year, season, size of fish) made little contribution to the variation. Reef flat and reef slope sites were separated by as little as 300 m. These results imply both that the fish have very limited local movement and that transmission of the parasite is concentrated locally.     

Shelters and their use by fishes on fringing coral reefs

Coral reef fish density and species richness are often higher at sites with more structural complexity. This association may be due to greater availability of shelters, but surprisingly little is known about the size and density of shelters and their use by coral reef fishes. We quantified shelter availability and use by fishes for the first time on a Caribbean coral reef by counting all holes and overhangs with a minimum entrance diameter ≥3 cm in 30 quadrats (25 m(2)) on two fringing reefs in Barbados. Shelter size was highly variable, ranging from 42 cm(3) to over 4,000,000 cm(3), with many more small than large shelters. On average, there were 3.8 shelters m(-2), with a median volume of 1,200 cm(3) and a total volume of 52,000 cm(3) m(-2). The number of fish per occupied shelter ranged from 1 to 35 individual fishes belonging to 66 species, with a median of 1. The proportion of shelters occupied and the number of occupants increased strongly with shelter size. Shelter density and total volume increased with substrate complexity, and this relationship varied among reef zones. The density of shelter-using fish was much more strongly predicted by shelter density and median size than by substrate complexity and increased linearly with shelter density, indicating that shelter availability is a limiting resource for some coral reef fishes. The results demonstrate the importance of large shelters for fish density and support the hypothesis that structural complexity is associated with fish abundance, at least in part, due to its association with shelter availability. This information can help identify critical habitat for coral reef fishes, predict the effects of reductions in structural complexity of natural reefs and improve the design of artificial reefs.     

Coastal Fish Assemblages Reflect Geological and Oceanographic Gradients Within An Australian Zootone

Distributions of mobile animals have been shown to be heavily influenced by habitat and climate. We address the historical and contemporary context of fish habitats within a major zootone: the Recherche Archipelago, southern western Australia. Baited remote underwater video systems were set in nine habitat types within three regions to determine the species diversity and relative abundance of bony fishes, sharks and rays. Constrained ordinations and multivariate prediction and regression trees were used to examine the effects of gradients in longitude, depth, distance from islands and coast, and epibenthic habitat on fish assemblage composition. A total of 90 species from 43 families were recorded from a wide range of functional groups. Ordination accounted for 19% of the variation in the assemblage composition when constrained by spatial and epibenthic covariates, and identified redundancy in the use of distance from the nearest emergent island as a predictor. A spatial hierarchy of fourteen fish assemblages was identified using multivariate prediction and regression trees, with the primary split between assemblages on macroalgal reefs, and those on bare or sandy habitats supporting seagrass beds. The characterisation of indicator species for assemblages within the hierarchy revealed important faunal break in fish assemblages at 122.30 East at Cape Le Grand and subtle niche partitioning amongst species within the labrids and monacanthids. For example, some species of monacanthids were habitat specialists and predominantly found on seagrass (Acanthaluteres vittiger, Scobinichthys granulatus), reef (Meuschenia galii, Meuschenia hippocrepis) or sand habitats (Nelusetta ayraudi). Predatory fish that consume molluscs, crustaceans and cephalopods were dominant with evidence of habitat generalisation in reef species to cope with local disturbances by wave action. Niche separation within major genera, and a sub-regional faunal break, indicate future zootone mapping should recognise both cross-shelf and longshore environmental gradients.     

Comparison between community structures of fishes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Enhalus acoroides</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thalassia hemprichii</Emphasis>-dominated seagrass beds on fringing coral reefs in the Ryukyu Islands,Japan

To clarify differences in community structures and habitat utilization patterns of fishes in Enhalus acoroides- and Thalassia hemprichii-dominated seagrass beds on fringing coral reefs, visual censuses were conducted at Iriomote and Ishigaki islands, southern Japan. The numbers of fish species and individuals were significantly higher in the E. acoroides bed than in the T. hemprichii bed, although the 15 most dominant fishes in each seagrass bed were similar. Cluster and ordination analyses based on the number of individuals of each fish species also demonstrated that fish community structures were similar in the two seagrass beds. Species and individual numbers of coral reef fishes which utilized the seagrass beds numbered less than about 15% of whole coral reef fish numbers, although they comprised about half of the seagrass bed fishes. Of the 15 most dominant species, 5 occurred only in the two seagrass beds, including seagrass feeders. Ten other species were reef species, their habitat utilization patterns not differing greatly between the two seagrass beds. Some reef species, such as Lethrinus atkinsoni and L. obsoletus, showed ontogenetic habitat shifts with growth, from the seagrass beds to the coral areas. These results indicate that community structures and habitat utilization patterns of fishes were similar between E. acoroides- and T. hemprichii-dominated seagrass beds, whereas many coral reef fishes hardly utilized the seagrass beds.     

Competition for shelter in a high-diversity system: structure use by large reef fishes

Competition among large reef fishes for shelter beneath tabular structures provides a rare opportunity to study competition in a species-rich environment. The system permits a detailed study of localised competition with major implications for coral reefs with respect to human impacts including climate change. Using underwater video cameras, this study examined competition among 30 species of large reef fishes (from nine families) for access to shelter provided by 26 tabular structures, which may be the highest reported diversity of vertebrates competing for a single resource. Mean concentrations of fishes under tabular structures were also among the highest biomass recorded on reefs (4.71 kg m⁻²). A generated dominance hierarchy for the occupation of shelter appeared to be primarily driven by the size of fishes. In contrast to previous studies, fishes higher in the hierarchy tended to exhibit the lowest levels of aggression. However, size difference between fishes was found to be strongly negatively correlated with the proportion of aggressive interactions (R ² = 0.971, P < 0.0001). The strong competition for the shade provided by these corals highlights concerns about future shifts in the structure of large reef fish communities as corals are lost. This is particularly concerning given the critical functional roles played by certain species of large reef fishes that utilise tabular structure for shelter and which occupy the lower ranks of the dominance hierarchy.

     

Tropical Fishes Dominate Temperate Reef Fish Communities within Western Japan

Climate change is resulting in rapid poleward shifts in the geographical distribution of tropical and subtropical fish species. We can expect that such range shifts are likely to be limited by species-specific resource requirements, with temperate rocky reefs potentially lacking a range of settlement substrates or specific dietary components important in structuring the settlement and success of tropical and subtropical fish species. We examined the importance of resource use in structuring the distribution patterns of range shifting tropical and subtropical fishes, comparing this with resident temperate fish species within western Japan (Tosa Bay); the abundance, diversity, size class, functional structure and latitudinal range of reef fishes utilizing both coral reef and adjacent rocky reef habitat were quantified over a 2 year period (2008–2010). This region has undergone rapid poleward expansion of reef-building corals in response to increasing coastal water temperatures, and forms one of the global hotspots for rapid coastal changes. Despite the temperate latitude surveyed (33°N, 133°E) the fish assemblage was both numerically, and in terms of richness, dominated by tropical fishes. Such tropical faunal dominance was apparent within both coral, and rocky reef habitats. The size structure of the assemblage suggested that a relatively large number of tropical species are overwintering within both coral and rocky habitats, with a subset of these species being potentially reproductively active. The relatively high abundance and richness of tropical species with obligate associations with live coral resources (i.e., obligate corallivores) shows that this region holds the most well developed temperate-located tropical fish fauna globally. We argue that future tropicalisation of the fish fauna in western Japan, associated with increasing coral habitat development and reported increasing shifts in coastal water temperatures, may have considerable positive economic impacts to the local tourism industry and bring qualitative changes to both local and regional fisheries resources.