Environmental Management for Malaria Control: Knowledge and Practices in Mvomero,Tanzania

Environmental conditions play an important role in the transmission of malaria; therefore, regulating these conditions can help to reduce disease burden. Environmental management practices for disease control can be implemented at the community level to complement other malaria control methods. This study assesses current knowledge and practices related to mosquito ecology and environmental management for malaria control in a rural, agricultural region of Tanzania. Household surveys were conducted with 408 randomly selected respondents from 10 villages and qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. Results show that respondents are well aware of the links between mosquitoes, the environment, and malaria. Most respondents stated that cleaning the environment around the home, clearing vegetation around the home, or draining stagnant water can reduce mosquito populations, and 63% of respondents reported performing at least one of these techniques to protect themselves from malaria. It is clear that many respondents believe that these environmental management practices are effective malaria control methods, but the actual efficacy of these techniques for controlling populations of vectors or reducing malaria prevalence in the varying ecological habitats in Mvomero is unknown. Further research should be conducted to determine the effects of different environmental management practices on both mosquito populations and malaria transmission in this region, and increased participation in effective techniques should be promoted.     

Ecological limitations on aquatic mosquito predator colonization in the urban environment.

Urban malaria cases are becoming common in Africa as more people move into cities and industrialization proceeds. While many species of Anopheles mosquitoes vector malaria in rural areas, only a few are found within cities. The success of anthropophilic species in cities, such as members of the An. gambiae complex, may be explained by limitations on colonization by predator species in urban environments. Habitats that are temporal or structurally simple have lower predator survivorship in a variety of ecosystems, but these have not been investigated previously in an urban area. Areas within and around the Kenyan coastal town of Malindi were previously sampled for the presence of standing water using a geographic sampling strategy with probability proportional to size sampling of planned well-drained, unplanned poorly-drained, planned poorly-drained, unplanned well-drained, and peri-urban locations. Standing aquatic habitats in these areas were reassessed. During monthly sampling, presence/absence of mosquitoes and predator taxa were noted, as were ecological habitat variables: structural complexity and presence of water. Lambda statistics were calculated to associate predator guilds, habitat types, location variables, and ecological variables. All predator guilds found in habitats were strongly associated with habitat type, as were the structural complexity and temporal nature of the habitats. Types of habitat were heterogeneously distributed throughout Malindi, with swimming pools as a common habitat type in planned urban areas and tire track pools a common habitat type in peri-urban areas of Malindi. Predator colonization of aquatic habitats in Malindi was strongly influenced by habitat type, and not associated with location characteristics. Ecological variables were affected by the type of habitats, which are co-associated with planning and drainage in Malindi. While habitat types are distributed heterogeneously within Malindi, habitats with low predation pressure are available for mosquito colonization in both urban and peri-urban areas. The temporal, peri-urban tire track pools and the structural simplicity of urban swimming pools may discourage predator colonization, thereby increasing the probability of malaria vectors in these areas of Malindi. Future studies should evaluate habitats for use in malaria surveillance and experimentally test the effects of structural complexity and temporal nature of urban habitats on the densities of mosquito larvae and their aquatic predators.     

Microbial larvicides for mosquito control: Impact of long lasting formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus on non‐target organisms in western Kenya highlands

The microbial larvicides Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus have been used extensively for mosquito control and have been found to be effective and safe to non‐target organisms cohabiting with mosquito larvae. Recently developed long lasting microbial larvicides (LLML), although evading the previous challenge of short duration of activity, increase the risk of persistence of toxins in the treated larval habitats. This study monitored the impact of LLML FourStar^® and LL3 on non‐target organisms cohabiting with mosquito larvae in an operational study to control malaria vectors in western Kenya highlands. A total of 300 larval habitats were selected in three highland villages. The habitats were first monitored for 5 weeks to collect baseline data on non‐target organisms cohabiting with mosquito larvae and then randomized into two treatment arms (respective FourStar^® and LL3) and one control arm. Non‐target organisms were sampled weekly for 5 months after treatment to assess the impact of LLML intervention. Before treatment, the mean density of all non‐target organisms combined in the control, LL3 and FourStar^® treated habitats was 1.42, 1.39 and 1.49 individuals per habitat per sampling occasion, respectively. Following treatment, this density remained fairly unchanged for 21 weeks at which time it was 1.82, 2.11, and 2.05 for the respective control, LL3 and FourStar^® treated habitats. Statistical analysis revealed that LL3 and FourStar^® did not significantly alter abundance, richness or diversity of the 11 taxa studied, when comparing the intervention and control larval habitats. However, both FourStar^® and LL3 significantly reduced the density of malaria vectors. In conclusion, one round of label rate application of FourStar^® or LL3 in natural larval habitats did not alter richness, abundance or diversity of the monitored aquatic non‐target organisms cohabiting with mosquito larvae to an ecologically significant level.     

Characterization of mosquito larval habitats and assessment of insecticide-resistance status of Anopheles gambiae senso lato in urban areas in southwestern Ghana

The study was carried out to characterize potential larval habitats in the city of Sekondi with the aim of assessing the relative importance of anthropogenic and natural water bodies as larval habitats. Insecticide-resistance status of Anopheles gambiae senso lato in the southwestern part of the coastal savannah zone in Ghana was also assessed against four different classes of insecticides. Larval surveys were carried out in two communities that are separated by a lagoon. Although the lagoon was a potential mosquito larval habitat, we showed that it was not an important mosquito breeding site. The major larval habitats were anthropogenic, resulting from human behavior. Some of the organically polluted breeding sites were inhabited by both An. gambiae s.l. and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. The data also showed that An. gambiae s.l. has currently developed a strong resistance to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides in southwestern Ghana, where the species was reported to be susceptible about a decade ago. The use of insecticides in households was implicated as a possible cause of the development of resistance among An. gambiae s.l. populations in the area. The management of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors needs urgent attention if insecticide-treated materials can continue to be used for malaria control.     

Health research ethics in malaria vector trials in Africa

Malaria mosquito research in Africa as elsewhere is just over a century old. Early trials for development of mosquito control tools were driven by colonial enterprises and war efforts; they were, therefore, tested in military or colonial settings. The failure of those tools and environmental concerns, coupled with the desperate need for integrated malaria control strategies, has necessitated the development of new malaria mosquito control tools, which are to be tested on humans, their environment and mosquito habitats. Ethical concerns start with phase 2 trials, which pose limited ethical dilemmas. Phase 3 trials, which are undertaken on vulnerable civilian populations, pose ethical dilemmas ranging from individual to community concerns. It is argued that such trials must abide by established ethical principles especially safety, which is mainly enshrined in the principle of non-maleficence. As there is total lack of experience with many of the promising candidate tools (eg genetically modified mosquitoes, entomopathogenic fungi, and biocontrol agents), great caution must be exercised before they are introduced in the field. Since malaria vector trials, especially phase 3 are intrusive and in large populations, individual and community respect is mandatory, and must give great priority to community engagement. It is concluded that new tools must be safe, beneficial, efficacious, effective, and acceptable to large populations in the short and long-term, and that research benefits should be equitably distributed to all who bear the brunt of the research burdens. It is further concluded that individual and institutional capacity strengthening should be provided, in order to undertake essential research, carry out scientific and ethical review, and establish competent regulatory frameworks.     

Colonization of UK coastal realignment sites by mosquitoes: implications for design,management, and public health

Coastal realignment is now widely instituted in the UK as part of local flood risk management plans to compensate for the loss of European protected habitat and to mitigate the effects of sea‐level rise and coastal squeeze. Coastal aquatic habitats have long been known to provide suitable habitats for brackish‐water mosquitoes and historically, coastal marshes were considered to support anopheline mosquito populations that were responsible for local malaria transmission. This study surveyed the eight largest managed realignment (MRA) sites in England (Essex and the Humber) for mosquito habitats. The apparent absence of anopheline mosquitoes exploiting aquatic habitats at all of these sites suggests that the risk of malaria associated with MRA sites is currently negligible. However, three of the eight sites supported populations of two nuisance and potential arboviral vector species, Aedes detritus and Aedes caspius. The aquatic habitats that supported mosquitoes resulted from a) specific design aspects of the new sea wall (ballast to mitigate wave action and constructed saline borrow ditches) that could be designed out or managed or b) isolated pools created through silt accretion or expansion of flooded zones to neighbouring pasture. The public health risks and recommendations for management are discussed in this report. This report highlights the need for pro‐active public health impact assessments prior to MRA development in consultation with the Health Protection Agency, as well as the need for a case‐by‐case approach to design and management to mitigate mosquito or mosquito‐borne disease issues now and in the future.     

Mosquito-borne Diseases as a Consequence of Land Use Change

Human modification of the natural environment continues to create habitats in which mosquitoes, vectors of a wide variety of human and animal pathogens, thrive if unabated with an enormous potential to negatively affect public health. Historic examples of these modifications include of impoundments, dams, and irrigation systems that create havens for the mosquitoes that transmit malaria, dengue, and filariasis. Additionally, contemporary deforestation appears to be associated with the expansion of mosquito distributions and the increase in mosquito-borne disease transmission. These observations are not unique to the developing world, as urban sprawl also contributes significantly to mosquito habitats and offers a sanctuary to some vector populations. With foresight and planning, most of these systems can be appropriately managed to control vector populations and pathogen transmission. The key to disease control is developing an understanding of the contribution of human landscape modification to vector-borne pathogen transmission and how a balance may be achieved between human development, public health, and responsible land use.     

The economic value of an improved malaria treatment programme in Zambia: results from a contingent valuation survey

Background

Pools of salt water and puddles created by giant waves from the sea due to the tsunami that occurred on 26^th December 2004 would facilitate increased breeding of brackish water malaria vector, Anopheles sundaicus. Land uplifts in North Andaman and subsidence in South Andaman have been reported and subsidence may lead to environmental disturbances and vector proliferation. This warrants a situation analysis and vector surveillance in the tsunami hit areas endemic for malaria transmitted by brackish water mosquito, An. sundaicus to predict the risk of outbreak.

Methods

An extensive survey was carried out in the tsunami-affected areas in Andaman district of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India to assess the extent of breeding of malaria vectors in the habitats created by seawater flooding. Types of habitats in relation to source of seawater inundation and frequency were identified. The salinity of the water samples and the mosquito species present in the larval samples collected from these habitats were recorded. The malaria situation in the area was also analysed.

Results

South Andaman, covering Port Blair and Ferrargunj sub districts, is still under the recurring phenomenon of seawater intrusion either directly from the sea or through a network of creeks. Both daily cycles of high tides and periodical spring tides continue to cause flooding. Low-lying paddy fields and fallow land, with a salinity ranging from 3,000 to 42,505 ppm, were found to support profuse breeding of An. sundaicus, the local malaria vector, and Anopheles subpictus, a vector implicated elsewhere. This area is endemic for both vivax and falciparum malaria. Malaria slide positivity rate has started increasing during post-tsunami period, which can be considered as an indication of risk of malaria outbreak.

Conclusion

Paddy fields and fallow land with freshwater, hitherto not considered as potential sites for An. sundaicus, are now major breeding sites due to saline water. Consequently, there is a risk of vector abundance with enhanced malaria transmission potential, due to the vastness of these tsunami-created breeding grounds and likelihood of them becoming permanent due to continued flooding in view of land subsidence. The close proximity of the houses and paucity of cattle may lead to a higher degree of man/vector contact causing a threat of malaria outbreak in this densely populated area. Measures to prevent the possible outbreak of malaria in this tsunami-affected area are discussed.     

Gut content identification of larvae of the Anopheles gambiae complex in western Kenya using a barcoding approach

Although larvae feeding and food source are vital to the development, survival and population regulation of African malaria vectors, the prey organisms of Anopheles gambiae larvae in the natural environment have not been well studied. This study used a molecular barcoding approach to investigate the natural diets of Anopheles gambiae s.l. larvae in western Kenya. Gut contents from third- and fourth-instar larvae from natural habitats were dissected and DNA was extracted. The 18S ribosomal DNA gene was amplified, the resulting clones were screened using a restriction fragment length polymorphism method and nonmosquito clones were sequenced. Homology search and phylogenetic analyses were then conducted using the sequences of non-mosquito clones to identify the putative microorganisms ingested. The phylogenetic analyses clustered ingested microorganisms in four clades, including two clades of green algae (Chlorophyta, Chlorophyceae Class, Chlamydomonadales and Chlorococcales families), one fungal clade, and one unknown eukaryote clade. In parallel, using the same approach, an analysis of the biodiversity present in the larval habitats was carried out. This present study demonstrated the feasibility of the barcoding approach to infer the natural diets of Anopheles gambiae larvae. Our analysis suggests that despite the wide range of microorganisms available in natural habitats, mosquito larvae fed on specific groups of algae. The novel tools developed from this study can be used to improve our understanding of the larval ecology of African malaria vectors and to facilitate the development of new mosquito control tools.     

Ecological mapping to support mosquito control on the French Mediterranean coast

Less than a century ago on the French Mediterranean coast, mosquitoes were responsible for a high rate of mortality from malaria. Today, mosquitoes are no more than a nuisance, but mosquito control is carried out actively to protect local residents and the economically important tourist trade. Along the Mediterranean coast, mosquito control makes use of environmental management:, biological control and insecticides. However, by use of detailed ecological maps, these control activities can be accurately targeted, leading to efficient control, reduced costs and minimal likelihood of insecticide resistance. In this article, Andre Gobinoud explains these techniques.     

Effectiveness of zooprophylaxis in malaria control: a theoretical inquiry, with a model for mosquito populations with two bloodmeal hosts

A model for a vector mosquito population with two bloodmeal hosts (man and a domestic animal) was developed to study the influences of domestic animals on the frequency of mosquito bites on man and the endemicity of human malaria. The vector population model, including blood-feeding success in the adult stage (depending on host density and biting efficiency) and density-dependent regulation in the larval stage, was combined with the Ross-Macdonald malaria transmission model. Model analyses suggested that introduction of domestic animals easily fed upon by mosquitoes increases mosquito density and, in some situations, frequency of mosquito bites on man and the infection rate of malaria through increased success of blood-feeding. Extinction of malaria was predicted only when an extremely large number of easily accessible (as compared to man) domestic animals are introduced. Limitations in the concept of zooprophylaxis and problems of livestock management in malaria control are discussed.     

Diet of age-0 tarpon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Megalops atlanticus</Emphasis>) in anthropogenically-modified and natural nursery habitats along the Indian River Lagoon,Florida

As human development in coastal areas increases, the role of anthropogenically-created habitats in the life history of marine organisms is becoming increasingly important. We examined the diet of age-0 tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, in and around man-made mosquito control impoundments along the Indian River Lagoon in east-central Florida, with a particular focus on identifying dietary patterns associated with tarpon size and nursery habitat type (i.e., between perimeter pool habitats in established impoundments and newly-created restoration marsh habitats). Age-0 tarpon were found to consume a wide variety of prey organisms, and exhibited considerable dietary variation among study sites. Smaller juvenile tarpon consumed a limited number of small prey taxa, while larger individuals fed on a greater range of prey taxa and sizes. Overall, copepods and fishes were the dominant prey items; however, the consumption of these organisms varied considerably among size classes and sites. There was no clear difference in tarpon diet between the two types of habitat we examined. The ability of juvenile tarpon to utilize such a diverse range of prey organisms may allow populations to inhabit a variety of habitats, including man-made marshes. When natural systems have been degraded or destroyed, human-altered habitats can assume a nursery role for the species.     

Urban agricultural land use and characterization of mosquito larval habitats in a medium-sized town of C?te d'Ivoire.

Urban agriculture is common across Africa and contributes to the livelihoods of urban dwellers. Some crop systems create suitable mosquito breeding sites and thus might affect malaria transmission. The purpose of this study was to identify, map, and characterize potential mosquito breeding sites in agricultural land use zones in a medium-sized town of western C?te d'Ivoire and to assess risk factors for productive Anopheles breeding sites. Two surveys were carried out; one toward the end of the rainy season and the second one during the dry season. In all identified potential mosquito breeding sites, two experienced entomologists searched for the presence of Anopheles larvae and pupae with a standardized technique. Totals of 369 and 589 sites were found in the rainy and dry seasons, respectively, mainly in vegetable gardens and irrigated rice fields. Anopheles larvae were present in 50.7% and 42.4% of the sites investigated during the rainy and dry seasons, respectively. Typical Anopheles larval habitats were characterized by the presence of algae, the absence of floating vegetation, and the co-occurrence of Culex larvae. The highest Anopheles larval productivity was observed in rice paddies, agricultural trenches between vegetable patches, and irrigation wells. An indirect link could be established between the occurrence of productive Anopheles breeding sites and agricultural land use through specific man-made habitats, in particular agricultural trenches, irrigation wells, and rice paddies. Our findings have important bearings for the epidemiology and control of urban malaria in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Drug resistance to sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine in Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Mlimba, Tanzania

Background

In the past two decades the east African highlands have experienced several major malaria epidemics. Currently there is a renewed interest in exploring the possibility of anopheline larval control through environmental management or larvicide as an additional means of reducing malaria transmission in Africa. This study examined the landscape determinants of anopheline mosquito larval habitats and usefulness of remote sensing in identifying these habitats in western Kenya highlands.

Methods

Panchromatic aerial photos, Ikonos and Landsat Thematic Mapper 7 satellite images were acquired for a study area in Kakamega, western Kenya. Supervised classification of land-use and land-cover and visual identification of aquatic habitats were conducted. Ground survey of all aquatic habitats was conducted in the dry and rainy seasons in 2003. All habitats positive for anopheline larvae were identified. The retrieved data from the remote sensors were compared to the ground results on aquatic habitats and land-use. The probability of finding aquatic habitats and habitats with Anopheles larvae were modelled based on the digital elevation model and land-use types.

Results

The misclassification rate of land-cover types was 10.8% based on Ikonos imagery, 22.6% for panchromatic aerial photos and 39.2% for Landsat TM 7 imagery. The Ikonos image identified 40.6% of aquatic habitats, aerial photos identified 10.6%, and Landsate TM 7 image identified 0%. Computer models based on topographic features and land-cover information obtained from the Ikonos image yielded a misclassification rate of 20.3–22.7% for aquatic habitats, and 18.1–25.1% for anopheline-positive larval habitats.

Conclusion

One-metre spatial resolution Ikonos images combined with computer modelling based on topographic land-cover features are useful tools for identification of anopheline larval habitats, and they can be used to assist to malaria vector control in western Kenya highlands.     

Advantages of larval control for African malaria vectors: Low mobility and behavioural responsiveness of immature mosquito stages allow high effective coverage

Background  

Based on sensitivity analysis of the MacDonald-Ross model, it has long been argued that the best way to reduce malaria transmission is to target adult female mosquitoes with insecticides that can reduce the longevity and human-feeding frequency of vectors. However, these analyses have ignored a fundamental biological difference between mosquito adults and the immature stages that precede them: adults are highly mobile flying insects that can readily detect and avoid many intervention measures whereas mosquito eggs, larvae and pupae are confined within relatively small aquatic habitats and cannot readily escape control measures.     

Wolbachia infections are virulent and inhibit the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in Anopheles gambiae

Endosymbiotic Wolbachia bacteria are potent modulators of pathogen infection and transmission in multiple naturally and artificially infected insect species, including important vectors of human pathogens. Anopheles mosquitoes are naturally uninfected with Wolbachia, and stable artificial infections have not yet succeeded in this genus. Recent techniques have enabled establishment of somatic Wolbachia infections in Anopheles. Here, we characterize somatic infections of two diverse Wolbachia strains (wMelPop and wAlbB) in Anopheles gambiae, the major vector of human malaria. After infection, wMelPop disseminates widely in the mosquito, infecting the fat body, head, sensory organs and other tissues but is notably absent from the midgut and ovaries. Wolbachia initially induces the mosquito immune system, coincident with initial clearing of the infection, but then suppresses expression of immune genes, coincident with Wolbachia replication in the mosquito. Both wMelPop and wAlbB significantly inhibit Plasmodium falciparum oocyst levels in the mosquito midgut. Although not virulent in non-bloodfed mosquitoes, wMelPop exhibits a novel phenotype and is extremely virulent for approximately 12-24 hours post-bloodmeal, after which surviving mosquitoes exhibit similar mortality trajectories to control mosquitoes. The data suggest that if stable transinfections act in a similar manner to somatic infections, Wolbachia could potentially be used as part of a strategy to control the Anopheles mosquitoes that transmit malaria.     

Anopheles gambiae genome: perspectives for malaria control

Malaria, a disease that infects 300 million people throughout the world and kills more than a million people, mostly children in sub-Saharan Africa, involves three organisms. The human host where the disease is seen, the protozoan Plasmodium parasite and the mosquito. The parasite is transmitted to humans only by the mosquito vector, which in sub-Saharan regions is generally Anopheles gambiae. Malaria along with AIDS and tuberculosis are killing large numbers of people and crippling the economies of the affected African countries. Though an enormous effort has been made during the past twenty years to develop vaccines to block malaria in humans, the incidence of the disease is increasing in Africa. The reasons for this development include a breakdown in mosquito control related to increased insecticide resistance, as well as increased parasite resistance to antimalarial drugs. It is clear that new methods of Anopheles mosquito control are needed to ameliorate the medical and economic situation in sub-Saharan Africa. As a step toward new malaria control methods, the international Plasmodium falciparum and Anopheles gambiae consortia have carried out the full genome sequencing of the most deadly malaria parasite and the most efficient vector. These, combined with the human genome sequence, provide the genomic infrastructure for a better understanding of the complex interactions within the malaria triad. This essay discusses possible strategies as to how the Anopheles genome can contribute to malaria control.     

The multifaceted mosquito anti-Plasmodium response

Plasmodium development within its mosquito vector is an essential step in malaria transmission, as illustrated in world regions where malaria was successfully eradicated via vector control. The innate immune system of most mosquitoes is able to completely clear a Plasmodium infection, preventing parasite transmission to humans. Understanding the biological basis of this phenomenon is expected to inspire new strategies to curb malaria incidence in countries where vector control via insecticides is unpractical, or inefficient because insecticide resistance genes have spread across mosquito populations. Several aspects of mosquito biology that condition the success of the parasite in colonizing its vector begin to be understood at the molecular level, and a wealth of recently published data highlights the multifaceted nature of the mosquito response against parasite invasion. In this brief review, we attempt to provide an integrated view of the challenges faced by the parasite to successfully invade its mosquito host, and discuss the possible intervention strategies that could exploit this knowledge for the fight against human malaria.     

Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes: still many secrets of a hidden life

Sexual differentiation and parasite transmission are intimately linked in the life cycle of malaria parasites. The specialized cells providing this crucial link are the Plasmodium gametocytes. These are formed in the vertebrate host and are programmed to mature into gametes emerging from the erythrocytes in the midgut of a blood-feeding mosquito. The ensuing fusion into a zygote establishes parasite infection in the insect vector. Although key mechanisms of gametogenesis and fertilization are becoming progressively clear, the fundamental biology of gametocyte formation still presents open questions, some of which are specific to the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Developmental commitment to sexual differentiation, regulation of stage-specific gene expression, the profound molecular and cellular changes accompanying gametocyte specialization, the requirement for tissue-specific sequestration in P. falciparum gametocytogenesis are proposed here as areas for future investigation. The epidemiological relevance of parasite transmission from humans to mosquito in the spread of malaria and of Plasmodium drug resistance genes indicates that understanding molecular mechanisms of gametocyte formation is highly relevant to design strategies able to interfere with the transmission of this disease.     

ٍSome biologically active microorganisms have the potential to suppress mosquito larvae (Culex pipiens,Diptera: Culicidae)

Malaria is a disease caused by protozoan species of the genus Plasmodium. It is widespread and becoming a challenge in several African countries in the tropical and subtropical regions. In 2010, a report was published showing that over 1.2 million death cases were occurred globally due to malaria in just one year. The transmission of the disease from one person to another occurs via the bite of the Anopheles female. It is known that Plasmodium ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. falciparum, and P. knowlesi are the highly infective malaria species. The problem of this disease is the absence of any effective medical treatment or vaccine, making the mosquito control is the only feasible way for disease prevention. Pesticides are currently the most widely used method for mosquito control, despite its well-known negative effects, including health hazards on human, the increasing insecticidal resistance, and the negative impact on the environment and beneficial organisms. Biological control (also called: biocontrol) of insects has been a promising method to overcome the negative effects of using chemical insecticides, as it depends on just using the natural enemies of pests to either minimize their populations or eradicate them. This article provides an overview of the recent and effective biological means to control malaria, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, larvivorous fish, toxorhynchites larva and nematodes. In addition, the importance, advantages, and disadvantages of the biocontrol methods will be discussed in comparison with the traditionally used chemical methods of malaria control with special reference to nanotechnology as a novel method for insects’ control.