Systematic analysis of protein pools, isoforms, and modifications affecting turnover and subcellular localization

In higher eukaryotes many genes encode protein isoforms whose properties and biological roles are often poorly characterized. Here we describe systematic approaches for detection of either distinct isoforms, or separate pools of the same isoform, with differential biological properties. Using information from ion intensities we have estimated protein abundance levels and using rates of change in stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture isotope ratios we measured turnover rates and subcellular distribution for the HeLa cell proteome. Protein isoforms were detected using three data analysis strategies that evaluate differences between stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture isotope ratios for specific groups of peptides within the total set of peptides assigned to a protein. The candidate approach compares stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture isotope ratios for predicted isoform-specific peptides, with ratio values for peptides shared by all the isoforms. The rule of thirds approach compares the mean isotope ratio values for all peptides in each of three equal segments along the linear length of the protein, assessing differences between segment values. The three in a row approach compares mean isotope ratio values for each sequential group of three adjacent peptides, assessing differences with the mean value for all peptides assigned to the protein. Protein isoforms were also detected and their properties evaluated by fractionating cell extracts on one-dimensional SDS-PAGE prior to trypsin digestion and MS analysis and independently evaluating isotope ratio values for the same peptides isolated from different gel slices. The effect of protein phosphorylation on turnover rates was analyzed by comparing mean turnover values calculated for all peptides assigned to a protein, either including, or excluding, values for cognate phosphopeptides. Collectively, these experimental and analytical approaches provide a framework for expanding the functional annotation of the genome.     

Systematic analysis of the impact of phosphorylation and O-GlcNAcylation on protein subcellular localization

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Systematic analysis of protein subcellular localization and interaction using high-throughput transient transformation of Arabidopsis seedlings

The functional genomics approach requires systematic analysis of protein subcellular distribution and interaction networks, preferably by optimizing experimental simplicity and physiological significance. Here, we present an efficient in planta transient transformation system that allows single or multiple expression of constructs containing various fluorescent protein tags in Arabidopsis cotyledons. The optimized protocol is based on vacuum infiltration of agrobacteria directly into young Arabidopsis seedlings. We demonstrate that Arabidopsis epidermal cells show a subcellular distribution of reference markers similar to that in tobacco epidermal cells, and can be used for co-localization or bi-molecular fluorescent complementation studies. We then used this new system to investigate the subcellular distribution of enzymes involved in sphingolipid metabolism. In contrast to transformation systems using tobacco epidermal cells or cultured Arabidopsis cells, our system provides the opportunity to take advantage of the extensive collections of mutant and transgenic lines available in Arabidopsis. The fact that this assay uses conventional binary vectors and a conventional Agrobacterium strain, and is compatible with a large variety of fluorescent tags, makes it a versatile tool for construct screening and characterization before stable transformation. Transient expression in Arabidopsis seedlings is thus a fast and simple method that requires minimum handling and potentially allows medium- to high-throughput analyses of fusion proteins harboring fluorescent tags in a whole-plant cellular context.     

A human short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase gene: structure, chromosomal localization, tissue expression and subcellular localization of its product

We have previously described the cloning of Hep27, a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase, which is synthesized in human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells following growth arrest induced by butyrate treatment. The present report describes the cloning, the structure and the physical and cytogenetic mapping of the gene coding for Hep27. We also show that Hep27 is synthesized in a limited number of human normal tissues and that it is localized in the nuclei and cytoplasm of HepG2 cells.     

Automated subcellular localization and quantification of protein expression in tissue microarrays

The recent development of tissue microarrays-composed of hundreds of tissue sections from different tumors arrayed on a single glass slide-facilitates rapid evaluation of large-scale outcome studies. Realization of this potential depends on the ability to rapidly and precisely quantify the protein expression within each tissue spot. We have developed a set of algorithms that allow the rapid, automated, continuous and quantitative analysis of tissue microarrays, including the separation of tumor from stromal elements and the sub-cellular localization of signals. Validation studies using estrogen receptor in breast carcinoma show that automated analysis matches or exceeds the results of conventional pathologist-based scoring. Automated analysis and sub-cellular localization of beta-catenin in colon cancer identifies two novel, prognostically significant tumor subsets, not detected by traditional pathologist-based scoring. Development of automated analysis technology empowers tissue microarrays for use in discovery-type experiments (more typical of cDNA microarrays), with the added advantage of inclusion of long-term demographic and patient outcome information.     

Galectin-3 expression and subcellular localization in senescent human fibroblasts

Galectin-3 is a galactose/lactose-binding protein (M(r) approximately 30,000), identified as a required factor in the splicing of pre-mRNA. In the LG1 strain of human diploid fibroblasts, galectin-3 could be found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of young, proliferating cells. In contrast, the protein was predominantly cytoplasmic in senescent LG1 cells that have lost replicative competence through in vitro culture. Incubation of young cells with leptomycin B, a drug that disrupts the interaction between the leucine-rich nuclear export signal and its receptor, resulted in the accumulation of galectin-3 inside the nucleus. In senescent cells, galectin-3 staining remained cytoplasmic even in the presence of the drug, thus suggesting that the observed localization in the cytoplasm was due to a lack of nuclear import. In heterodikaryons derived from fusion of young and senescent LG1 cells, the predominant phenotype was galectin-3 in both nuclei. These results suggest that senescent LG1 cells might lack a factor(s) specifically required for galectin-3 nuclear import.     

Large-scale analysis of human alternative protein isoforms: pattern classification and correlation with subcellular localization signals

We investigated human alternative protein isoforms of >2600 genes based on full-length cDNA clones and SwissProt. We classified the isoforms and examined their co-occurrence for each gene. Further, we investigated potential relationships between these changes and differential subcellular localization. The two most abundant patterns were the one with different C-terminal regions and the one with an internal insertion, which together account for 43% of the total. Although changes of the N-terminal region are less common than those of the C-terminal region, extension of the C-terminal region is much less common than that of the N-terminal region, probably because of the difficulty of removing stop codons in one isoform. We also found that there are some frequently used combinations of co-occurrence in alternative isoforms. We interpret this as evidence that there is some structural relationship which produces a repertoire of isoformal patterns. Finally, many terminal changes are predicted to cause differential subcellular localization, especially in targeting either peroxisomes or mitochondria. Our study sheds new light on the enrichment of the human proteome through alternative splicing and related events. Our database of alternative protein isoforms is available through the internet.     

Mechanisms governing subcellular localization and function of human RGS2

RGS proteins negatively regulate heterotrimeric G proteins at the plasma membrane. RGS2-GFP localizes to the nucleus, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm of HEK293 cells. Expression of activated G(q) increased RGS2 association with the plasma membrane and decreased accumulation in the nucleus, suggesting that signal-induced redistribution may regulate RGS2 function. Thus, we identified and characterized a conserved N-terminal domain in RGS2 that is necessary and sufficient for plasma membrane localization. Mutational and biophysical analyses indicated that this domain is an amphipathic alpha-helix that binds vesicles containing acidic phospholipids. However, the plasma membrane targeting function of the amphipathic helical domain did not appear to be essential for RGS2 to attenuate signaling by activated G(q). Nevertheless, truncation mutants indicated that the N terminus is essential, potentially serving as a scaffold that binds receptors, signaling proteins, or nuclear components. Indeed, the RGS2 N terminus directs nuclear accumulation of GFP. Although RGS2 possesses a nuclear targeting motif, it lacks a nuclear import signal and enters the nucleus by passive diffusion. Nuclear accumulation of RGS2 does not limit its ability to attenuate G(q) signaling, because excluding RGS2 from the nucleus was without effect. RGS2 may nonetheless regulate signaling or other processes in the nucleus.     

家蚕BmChd64基因的克隆与表达定位分析

Chd64是含有钙结合蛋白同源（Calponin homology,CH）结构域的蛋白,在果蝇蜕皮激素与保幼激素信号通路中发挥重要作用。本研究以家蚕Bombyx mori为研究对象,利用PCR克隆了与果蝇Drosophila melanogaster DmChd64同源的BmChd64基因,与表达载体pET-28a连接后,成功获得体外原核表达的BmChd64蛋白,并对其进行了亚细胞定位分析。家蚕BmChd64基因开放阅读框（ORF）的序列为567 bp,编码188个氨基酸,预测分子量大小为20.9 kDa,理论等电点为8.41,编码的蛋白在第27~130个氨基酸处存在CH结构域。同源性比对与进化分析显示,BmChd64与赤拟谷盗Tribolium castaneum和果蝇的Chd亲缘关系较近。qRT-PCR结果显示,BmChd64在家蚕5龄游走期的不同组织中均有表达,且在翅原基中的表达趋势与家蚕体内蜕皮激素（20-hydroxyecdysone,20E）滴度变化规律一致。亚细胞定位结果显示,BmChd64在细胞核与细胞质中均有分布,细胞核内荧光信号较强,且在细胞核外围较弱,推测细胞质中BmChd64也可入核,最终定位在细胞核中。研究结果表明BmChd64可能主要通过20E信号通路调控翅原基等的变态发育,这为进一步完善20E调控昆虫变态发育的分子机制提供了实验基础。     

小麦铝胁迫基因TaAIP的克隆表达分析及亚细胞定位

以小麦抗逆相关蛋白TaMAPK2作为诱饵,利用酵母双杂交系统进行筛库,获得互作蛋白TaAIP。氨基酸序列分析发现TaAIP具有wali保守区,并且与一些物种的铝诱导蛋白相似。实时荧光定量PCR分析显示,TaAIP基因受到铝、干旱以及高盐胁迫上调表达。半定量RT-PCR结果表明,TaAIP在小麦茎中表达,在根部、叶片以及花中没有表达。亚细胞定位实验发现,TaAIP定位在细胞膜上。这些结果为深入分析TaAIP的抗逆性作用机理打下基础。     

Systematic validation of antibody binding and protein subcellular localization using siRNA and confocal microscopy

We have developed a platform for validation of antibody binding and protein subcellular localization data obtained from immunofluorescence using siRNA technology combined with automated confocal microscopy and image analysis. By combining the siRNA technology with automated sample preparation, automated imaging and quantitative image analysis, a high-throughput assay has been set-up to enable confirmation of accurate protein binding and localization in a systematic manner. Here, we describe the analysis and validation of the subcellular location of 65 human proteins, targeted by 75 antibodies and silenced by 130 siRNAs. A large fraction of (80%) the subcellular locations, including locations of several previously uncharacterized proteins, could be confirmed by the significant down-regulation of the antibody signal after the siRNA silencing. A quantitative analysis was set-up using automated image analysis to facilitate studies of targets found in more than one compartment. The results obtained using the platform demonstrate that siRNA silencing in combination with quantitative image analysis of antibody signals in different compartments of the cells is an attractive approach for ensuring accurate protein localization as well as antibody binding using immunofluorescence. With a large fraction of the human proteome still unexplored, we suggest this approach to be of great importance under the continued work of mapping the human proteome on a subcellular level.     

Prediction of protein subcellular localization by weighted gene ontology terms

We develop a new weighting approach of gene ontology (GO) terms for predicting protein subcellular localization. The weights of individual GO terms, corresponding to their contribution to the prediction algorithm, are determined by the term-weighting methods used in text categorization. We evaluate several term-weighting methods, which are based on inverse document frequency, information gain, gain ratio, odds ratio, and chi-square and its variants. Additionally, we propose a new term-weighting method based on the logarithmic transformation of chi-square. The proposed term-weighting method performs better than other term-weighting methods, and also outperforms state-of-the-art subcellular prediction methods. Our proposed method achieves 98.1%, 99.3%, 98.1%, 98.1%, and 95.9% overall accuracies for the animal BaCelLo independent dataset (IDS), fungal BaCelLo IDS, animal Höglund IDS, fungal Höglund IDS, and PLOC dataset, respectively. Furthermore, the close correlation between high-weighted GO terms and subcellular localizations suggests that our proposed method appropriately weights GO terms according to their relevance to the localizations.     

Systematic analysis of gene expression in human brains before and after death

Background  

Numerous studies have employed microarray techniques to study changes in gene expression in connection with human disease, aging and evolution. The vast majority of human samples available for research are obtained from deceased individuals. This raises questions about how well gene expression patterns in such samples reflect those of living individuals.