微生物胞外电子传递效率的合成生物学强化

电活性微生物(产电微生物和亲电微生物)通过与外界环境进行双向电子和能量传递来实现多种微生物电催化过程(包括微生物燃料电池、微生物电解电池、微生物电催化等),从而实现在环境、能源领域的广泛应用,并为开发有效且可持续性生产新能源或大宗精细化学品的工艺提供了新机会。但是,电活性微生物的胞外电子传递效率比较低,这已经成为限制微生物电催化系统在工业应用中的主要瓶颈。以下综述了近年来利用合成生物学改造电活性微生物的相关研究成果,阐明了合成生物学如何用于打破电活性微生物胞外电子传递途径低效率的瓶颈,从而实现电活性微生物与环境的高效电子传递和能量交换,推动电活性微生物电催化系统的实用化进程。     

基于细胞色素c的胞外电子传递过程

电活性微生物具有独特的胞外电子传递功能,在地球化学循环和环境污染修复中起着重要作用。细胞色素c在电活性微生物胞外电子传递过程中扮演了重要角色,不仅参与直接电子传递途径,还参与电子媒介介导的间接电子传递。其电子传递功能不仅对地球环境中铁、锰、碳等元素的循环具有重要作用,还应用于能源生产、废水处理、生物修复等众多领域,具有良好的应用潜力。本文以电活性微生物的2个模式菌属(希瓦氏菌属和地杆菌属)为例,综述了电活性微生物将电子由胞内转移至胞外的方式和途径,详细阐述了细胞色素c在该胞外电子传递过程中的重要作用,总结了细胞色素c介导的胞外电子传递过程所涉及的分析方法,并对微生物胞外电子传递未来的研究方向提出了展望。     

典型胞外呼吸细菌的胞内电子转移机制研究进展

胞外呼吸在污染物的降解转化和微生物产电过程中具有重要作用。微生物进行胞外呼吸时,其电子受体多以固态形式存在于胞外,氧化产生的电子必须通过电子传递链从胞内经细胞周质转移到外膜。S.oneidensis MR-1与G.Sulfurreducens作为微生物燃料电池中最常用的模式菌株,是现阶段研究最深入和系统的胞外呼吸细菌,其胞内电子传递过程目前研究最为清楚。这两种胞外呼吸细菌的电子传递需多种细胞色素c的参与,S.oneidensis MR-1位于内膜及周质上的细胞色素c-Cym A和MtrA可将电子由内膜上的醌池通过周质到外膜蛋白MtrC和OmcA,MtrC和OmcA接收电子后可直接还原胞外受体,Type Ⅱ secretion system对外膜蛋白中的MtrC和OmcA起到了转运及定位的作用。而在G.sulfurreducens中,电子由MacA传递到PpcA,最终由外膜蛋白OmcB、OmcE、OmcS及OmcZ接受电子,并在Type Ⅳ pili的共同作用下将电子传递到胞外电子受体。本文最后指出目前对Shewanella与Geobacter胞内电子转移研究尚不清楚的地方提出展望。     

微生物种间直接电子传递机理及应用研究进展

微生物胞内产生的电子转移到其他电子受体而获得能量的过程称为微生物胞外电子传递,其中,另一微生物作为电子受体时发生的电子传递称为微生物种间电子传递。根据微生物种间电子传递机制,可分间接种间电子传递和种间直接电子传递。由于种间直接电子传递不需要其他物质介导,因此较间接种间电子传递效率更高、能量利用更高。本文系统阐述了微生物进行胞外电子传递的机理及应用,重点分析了种间直接电子传递机理,并概述种间直接电子传递应用领域,为寻找更多电连接的微生物群落以及应用微生物提供参考。     

细菌产黄素类化合物介导的电子传递及对环境污染物的厌氧生物转化研究进展

氧化还原介体能够加速有毒环境污染物的厌氧生物转化。黄素类化合物是一类微生物自身合成分泌的氧化还原介体,其应用可有效地避免外源性介体带来的成本较高及造成二次污染的问题,因此引起了广泛的关注。研究表明,细菌合成的微量黄素类化合物不仅能够作为黄素蛋白的辅酶因子参与偶氮染料、铬酸盐和硝基芳烃等污染物的厌氧生物转化,并且还可以分泌到胞外将电子传递给固态电子受体如含铁矿物和电极等来参与生物修复过程。根据黄素类化合物的功能,本文综述了黄素类化合物的合成与分泌,及其介导的胞内外电子传递和对环境污染物厌氧生物转化的影响,以促进其在实际环境污染物处理中的应用。     

产电微生物基因调控网络的构建和特异性通路分析

研究产电微生物胞外电子传递过程和机制,发现与产电效率相关的关键基因、通路和代谢物,是微生物燃料电池研究中的关键技术。为了发现在胞外电子传递过程中起到关键作用的基因以及通路,首先利用比较基因组学的方法,以模式微生物大肠杆菌和同属希瓦氏菌的其他菌株为参考,构建了Shewanella.onedensis MR-1的全基因组基因转录调控网络,大大扩展了目前已知的基因调控关系。然后以此网络为基础,结合基于蛋白质相互作用分析得到的胞外电子传递通路,构建了与胞外电子传递直接传递密切相关的细胞色素C编码基因及其相关调控基因构成的子网络,结合全基因组基因表达数据,研究了特异性条件下胞外电子传递的可能通路和基因调控过程。     

产电微生物的筛选方法研究进展

产电微生物是一类具有胞外电子转移能力的微生物,能够将有机物中储存的化学能转化为电能,其作为微生物电催化系统的催化剂,已经成为环境和能源领域的研究热点。但目前所发现的产电菌,产电机制有所差异,产电能力参差不齐,菌株的性能从根本上影响了其产电能力,其产电能力不足成为限制微生物燃料电池在工业上广泛应用的主要瓶颈。目前,通过理性设计或定向进化等改造方法,难以实现产电微生物在复杂多样环境中的广泛应用。通过定向筛选策略,建立一套快速、高效的筛选鉴定技术,挖掘环境中性能优异的产电微生物,是促进其广泛应用的有效途径。文中基于产电微生物的种类,总结回顾了现有的产电微生物的筛选鉴定方法,并对其研究前景进行了展望。     

吸收胞外电子的电活性微生物

可吸收胞外电子的电活性微生物(Electroactive microorganisms,EAMs)可利用胞外固态载体的电子将二氧化碳或其他氧化态物质还原成胞外有机物、还原态无机物或自身生命活动所需的有机物。该类EAMs的出现拓宽了人们对微生物多样性的认识,在生物质能合成、污染物治理与化学物质检测等方面具有重要的应用价值。本文介绍了代表性的可吸收胞外电子EAMs的物质转化与电能转化率等基本特性,重点阐述该类EAMs基于膜蛋白的直接吸收电子机制,及基于电子穿梭体的间接吸收电子机制,提出了其在微生物电合成系统与微生物传感器中的应用前景,并从EAMs机理研究、生物膜微观机制及工程应用的角度展望其今后的研究方向。     

微生物胞外呼吸电子传递机制研究进展

胞外呼吸是近年来发现的新型微生物厌氧能量代谢方式,主要包括铁呼吸、腐殖质呼吸与产电呼吸3种形式。微生物胞外呼吸与传统的有氧呼吸、胞内厌氧呼吸存在显著差异。其电子受体多以固态形式存在于胞外;氧化产生的电子必须通过电子传递链从胞内转移到细胞周质和外膜,并通过外膜上的细胞色素c、纳米导线或自身产生的电子穿梭体等方式,最终将电子传递至胞外的末端受体。胞外呼吸的本质问题是微生物与胞外电子受体(铁/锰氧化物、固态电极或腐殖质等)的相互作用,即微生物如何将胞内电子传递至胞外受体。胞外呼吸的研究丰富了人们对微生物呼吸多样性的认识,同时在污染物原位修复及清洁生物能源提取方面具有重要应用前景,是当前研究的热点问题。总结了胞外呼吸类型和胞外呼吸菌的多样性,重点阐述了胞外呼吸的电子传递过程,并提出了其应用前景及今后的研究方向。     

生物工程强化微生物电合成转化CO_2的研究进展

微生物电合成(Microbial electrosynthesis,MES)可直接利用电能驱动微生物还原固定CO_2合成多碳化合物,为可再生新能源转化、精细化学品制备和生态环境保护提供新机遇。但是,微生物吸收胞外电极电子速率慢、产物合成效率低和产品品位不高,限制了MES实现工业化应用。在概述阴极电活性微生物吸收胞外电子的分子机制的基础上,重点综述近5年应用生物工程的理论和技术强化MES用于CO_2转化的策略与研究进展,包括改造和调控胞外电子传递通路和胞内代谢途径以及定向构建有限微生物混合培养菌群三方面,阐明了生物工程可有效突破MES中电子传递慢和可用代谢途径相对单一等瓶颈。针对目前生物工程在改进MES所面临的主要问题,从胞外电子传递机理研究、基因工具箱开发、组学技术与现代分析技术联用等角度展望了今后的研究方向。     

分子生物学方法提高电活性微生物胞外电子传递效率的研究进展*

微生物细胞与电极之间的胞外电子传递效率是限制微生物电化学技术发展的关键因素,而分子生物学的发展为提高胞外电子传递效率带来了光明前景。从四种具有代表性的纯培养电活性微生物(奥奈达希瓦氏菌、铜绿假单胞菌、硫还原地杆菌和工程大肠杆菌)和混合培养电活性微生物出发,综述了利用分子生物学手段改造几种电活性微生物的研究成果,阐明了针对特异的电活性微生物,如何采取相应的分子生物学手段提高其胞外电子传递的效率,并展望了未来的研究方向。     

促进电活性微生物产电呼吸能力的方法研究进展

产电呼吸是指电活性微生物(electroactive microorganisms,EAMs)以胞外固体电极作为电子受体的一种呼吸形式,在可再生能源利用和环境修复方面具有广阔的应用前景。能否进一步提高EAMs的产电呼吸能力是相关技术能否从实验室走向实际应用的核心,而提高产电呼吸能力的关键是加强EAMs与胞外固体电极间的电子传递能力。目前总结如何促进EAMs产电呼吸能力的综述文献极少。因此,本文从投加化学试剂、施加物理作用及改造生物基因3个方面总结了现有的促进EAMs产电呼吸能力的方法,介绍了每种方法的优势与缺陷,重点阐述了每种手段的作用机理及促进效果,并从实际应用和机理研究的角度展望了今后的研究方向。     

Secretion of Flavins by Shewanella Species and Their Role in Extracellular Electron Transfer

Fe(III)-respiring bacteria such as Shewanella species play an important role in the global cycle of iron, manganese, and trace metals and are useful for many biotechnological applications, including microbial fuel cells and the bioremediation of waters and sediments contaminated with organics, metals, and radionuclides. Several alternative electron transfer pathways have been postulated for the reduction of insoluble extracellular subsurface minerals, such as Fe(III) oxides, by Shewanella species. One such potential mechanism involves the secretion of an electron shuttle. Here we identify for the first time flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and riboflavin as the extracellular electron shuttles produced by a range of Shewanella species. FMN secretion was strongly correlated with growth and exceeded riboflavin secretion, which was not exclusively growth associated but was maximal in the stationary phase of batch cultures. Flavin adenine dinucleotide was the predominant intracellular flavin but was not released by live cells. The flavin yields were similar under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, with total flavin concentrations of 2.9 and 2.1 μmol per gram of cellular protein, respectively, after 24 h and were similar under dissimilatory Fe(III)-reducing conditions and when fumarate was supplied as the sole electron acceptor. The flavins were shown to act as electron shuttles and to promote anoxic growth coupled to the accelerated reduction of poorly crystalline Fe(III) oxides. The implications of flavin secretion by Shewanella cells living at redox boundaries, where these mineral phases can be significant electron acceptors for growth, are discussed.     

The acceptor specificity of flavins and flavoproteins. II. Free flavins

1. For comparison with flavoprotein oxidases, a study has been made of free flavins in the reduced form with respect to the specificity and stoichiometry of their oxidation by a series of acceptors.

2. Reduced flavins uncombined with proteins show very little acceptor specificity and react very rapidly with nearly all the commonly used acceptors. Their behaviour resembles that of dithionite very closely indeed, and it differs considerably from that of flavoproteins. Like dithionite, free reduced flavins reduce O₂ quantitatively to H₂O₂; this oxidizes a further molecule of flavin.

3. H₂O₂ and cytochrome c react more slowly than most acceptors with reduced flavins. Nitrate and NDA⁺ do not act at all and require special activation.

4. Catalase can act as a catalyst for the aerobic oxidation of flavins by converting slowly-reacting H₂O₂ into rapidly-reacting O₂.

5. In the absence of catalytic metals ascorbate reacts with acceptors much more slowly than reduced flavins do.     

Kinetics and reactivity of the flavin and heme cofactors of cellobiose dehydrogenase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The flavin cofactor within cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH) was found to be responsible for the reduction of all electron acceptors tested. This includes cytochrome c, the reduction of which has been reported to be by the reduced heme of CDH. The heme group was shown to affect the reactivity and activation energy with respect to individual electron acceptors, but the heme group was not involved in the direct transfer of electrons to substrate. A complicated interaction was found to exist between the flavin and heme of cellobiose dehydrogenase. The addition of electron acceptors was shown to increase the rate of flavin reduction and the electron transfer rate between the flavin and heme. All electron acceptors tested appeared to be reduced by the flavin domain. The addition of ferric iron eliminated the flavin radical present in reduced CDH, as detected by low temperature ESR spectroscopy, while it increased the flavin radical ESR signal in the independent flavin domain, more commonly referred to as cellobiose:quinone oxidoreductase (CBQR). Conversely, no radical was detected with either CDH or CBQR upon the addition of methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. Similar reaction rates and activation energies were determined for methyl-1,4-benzoquinone with both CDH and CBQR, whereas the rate of iron reduction by CDH was five times higher than by CBQR, and its activation energy was 38 kJ/mol lower than that of CBQR. Oxygen, which may be reduced by either one or two electrons, was found to behave like a two-electron acceptor. Superoxide production was found only upon the inclusion of iron. Additionally, information is presented indicating that the site of substrate reduction may be in the cleft between the flavin and heme domains.     

Promotion of Iron Oxide Reduction and Extracellular Electron Transfer in Shewanella oneidensis by DMSO

The dissimilatory metal reducing bacterium Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, known for its capacity of reducing iron and manganese oxides, has great environmental impacts. The iron oxides reducing process is affected by the coexistence of alternative electron acceptors in the environment, while investigation into it is limited so far. In this work, the impact of dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), a ubiquitous chemical in marine environment, on the reduction of hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) by S. oneidensis MR-1 was investigated. Results show that DMSO promoted HFO reduction by both wild type and ΔdmsE, but had no effect on the HFO reduction by ΔdmsB, indicating that such a promotion was dependent on the DMSO respiration. With the DMSO dosing, the levels of extracellular flavins and omcA expression were significantly increased in WT and further increased in ΔdmsE. Bioelectrochemical analysis show that DMSO also promoted the extracellular electron transfer of WT and ΔdmsE. These results demonstrate that DMSO could stimulate the HFO reduction through metabolic and genetic regulation in S. oneidensis MR-1, rather than compete for electrons with HFO. This may provide a potential respiratory pathway to enhance the microbial electron flows for environmental and engineering applications.     

Multiple roles of released c-type cytochromes in tuning electron transport and physiological status of Geobacter sulfurreducens

Dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria (DMRB) can transfer electrons to extracellular insoluble electron acceptors and play important roles in geochemical cycling, biocorrosion, environmental remediation, and bioenergy generation. c-type cytochromes (c-Cyts) are synthesized by DMRB and usually transported to the cell surface to form modularized electron transport conduits through protein assembly, while some of them are released as extracellularly free-moving electron carriers in growth to promote electron transport. However, the type of these released c-Cyts, the timing of their release, and the functions they perform have not been unrevealed yet. In this work, after characterizing the types of c-Cyts released by Geobacter sulfurreducens under a variety of cultivation conditions, we found that these c-Cyts accumulated up to micromolar concentrations in the surrounding medium and conserved their chemical activities. Further studies demonstrated that the presence of c-Cyts accelerated the process of microbial extracellular electron transfer and mediated long-distance electron transfer. In particular, the presence of c-Cyts promoted the microbial respiration and affected the physiological state of the microbial community. In addition, c-Cyts were observed to be adsorbed on the surface of insoluble electron acceptors and modify electron acceptors. These results reveal the overlooked multiple roles of the released c-Cyts in acting as public goods, delivering electrons, modifying electron acceptors, and even regulating bacterial community structure in natural and artificial environments.     

Extracellular Electron Transfer Between Birnessite and Electrochemically Active Bacteria Community from Red Soil in Hainan,China

The interplay between electrochemically active microorganisms (EAMs) and adjacent minerals universally occurs in natural environments, in which soil is an extremely typical and active one. We stimulated the extracellular electron transfer (EET) process between the bacterial community and birnessite in red soil (collected from Hainan, China) by constructing a microbial fuel cell equipped with synthetic birnessite cathode. Compared to graphite-cathode, the cell voltage of birnessite-cathode was increased by 22% when loading a 1000 Ω-resistance, indicating the EET between microbes and birnessite. Eleven genera of EAMs in red soil were confirmed through 16S rRNA analysis. Neither palpable novel mineral formation nor change of birnessite crystallinity was observed after reaction by Raman and SEM. As oxygen pumped into cathode chamber was the terminal electron acceptor, birnessite principally performed as an intermediate of holistic electron transfer process to favor the cathodic oxygen reduction.