Old cogs,new tricks: A scaffolding role for connexin43 and a junctional role for sodium channels?

Cardiac conduction is the process by which electrical excitation is communicated from cell to cell within the heart, triggering synchronous contraction of the myocardium. The role of conduction defects in precipitating life-threatening arrhythmias in various disease states has spurred scientific interest in the phenomenon. While the understanding of conduction has evolved greatly over the last century, the process has largely been thought to occur via movement of charge between cells via gap junctions. However, it has long been hypothesized that electrical coupling between cardiac myocytes could also occur ephaptically, without direct transfer of ions between cells. This review will focus on recent insights into cardiac myocyte intercalated disk ultrastructure and their implications for conduction research, particularly the ephaptic coupling hypothesis.     

Intercalated disk nanoscale structure regulates cardiac conduction

The intercalated disk (ID) is a specialized subcellular region that provides electrical and mechanical connections between myocytes in the heart. The ID has a clearly defined passive role in cardiac tissue, transmitting mechanical forces and electrical currents between cells. Recent studies have shown that Na⁺ channels, the primary current responsible for cardiac excitation, are preferentially localized at the ID, particularly within nanodomains such as the gap junction–adjacent perinexus and mechanical junction–associated adhesion-excitability nodes, and that perturbations of ID structure alter cardiac conduction. This suggests that the ID may play an important, active role in regulating conduction. However, the structures of the ID and intercellular cleft are not well characterized and, to date, no models have incorporated the influence of ID structure on conduction in cardiac tissue. In this study, we developed an approach to generate realistic finite element model (FEM) meshes replicating nanoscale of the ID structure, based on experimental measurements from transmission electron microscopy images. We then integrated measurements of the intercellular cleft electrical conductivity, derived from the FEM meshes, into a novel cardiac tissue model formulation. FEM-based calculations predict that the distribution of cleft conductances is sensitive to regional changes in ID structure, specifically the intermembrane separation and gap junction distribution. Tissue-scale simulations predict that ID structural heterogeneity leads to significant spatial variation in electrical polarization within the intercellular cleft. Importantly, we found that this heterogeneous cleft polarization regulates conduction by desynchronizing the activation of postjunctional Na⁺ currents. Additionally, these heterogeneities lead to a weaker dependence of conduction velocity on gap junctional coupling, compared with prior modeling formulations that neglect or simplify ID structure. Further, we found that disruption of local ID nanodomains can either slow or enhance conduction, depending on gap junctional coupling strength. Our study therefore suggests that ID nanoscale structure can play a significant role in regulating cardiac conduction.     

Cell Junctions in the Specialized Conduction System of the Heart

Abstract

Anchoring cell junctions are integral in maintaining electro-mechanical coupling of ventricular working cardiomyocytes; however, their role in cardiomyocytes of the cardiac conduction system (CCS) remains less clear. Recent studies in genetic mouse models and humans highlight the appearance of these cell junctions alongside gap junctions in the CCS and also show that defects in these structures and their components are associated with conduction impairments in the CCS. Here we outline current evidence supporting an integral relationship between anchoring and gap junctions in the CCS. Specifically we focus on (1) molecular and ultrastructural evidence for cell–cell junctions in specialized cardiomyocytes of the CCS, (2) genetic mouse models specifically targeting cell–cell junction components in the heart which exhibit CCS conduction defects and (3) human clinical studies from patients with cell–cell junction-based diseases that exhibit CCS electrophysiological defects.     

Specification of the mouse cardiac conduction system in the absence of Endothelin signaling

Coordinated contraction of the heart is essential for survival and is regulated by the cardiac conduction system. Contraction of ventricular myocytes is controlled by the terminal part of the conduction system known as the Purkinje fiber network. Lineage analyses in chickens and mice have established that the Purkinje fibers of the peripheral ventricular conduction system arise from working myocytes during cardiac development. It has been proposed, based primarily on gain-of-function studies, that Endothelin signaling is responsible for myocyte-to-Purkinje fiber transdifferentiation during avian heart development. However, the role of Endothelin signaling in mammalian conduction system development is less clear, and the development of the cardiac conduction system in mice lacking Endothelin signaling has not been previously addressed. Here, we assessed the specification of the cardiac conduction system in mouse embryos lacking all Endothelin signaling. We found that mouse embryos that were homozygous null for both ednra and ednrb, the genes encoding the two Endothelin receptors in mice, were born at predicted Mendelian frequency and had normal specification of the cardiac conduction system and apparently normal electrocardiograms with normal QRS intervals. In addition, we found that ednra expression within the heart was restricted to the myocardium while ednrb expression in the heart was restricted to the endocardium and coronary endothelium. By establishing that ednra and ednrb are expressed in distinct compartments within the developing mammalian heart and that Endothelin signaling is dispensable for specification and function of the cardiac conduction system, this work has important implications for our understanding of mammalian cardiac development.     

'Non-synaptic' mechanisms in seizures and epileptogenesis

The role of 'non-synaptic' mechanisms (i.e. those mechanisms that are independent of active chemical synpases) in the synchronization of neuronal activity during seizures and their possible contribution to chronic epileptogenesis are summarized. These 'non-synaptic' mechanisms include electrotonic coupling through gap junctions, electrical field effects (i.e. ephaptic transmission), and ionic interactions (e.g. increases in the extracellular concentration of K(+)). Several lines of evidence indicate that granule cells and pyramidal cells of the hippocampus, and probably other cortical neurons, can generate synchronized electrical activity after active chemical synaptic transmission has been blocked. This synchronized activity is sensitive to alterations in the size of the extracellular space, thus suggesting that electrical field effects and ionic mechanisms contribute to this synchronized activity. Recent studies also indicate that 'non-synaptic' synchronization is quite prominent early in development. Electrophysiological data from hippocampal and neocortical slices have led to a re-interpretation of the fast prepotentials (i.e. partial spikes) recorded in cortical pyramidal cells, suggesting that they may not be due to dendritic spike generation. Improvement in freeze-fracture ultrastructural techniques have led to a re-assessment of previous data on gap junctions in the nervous system and opened new approaches to the quantitative analysis and characterization of gap junctions on glia and neurons. Finally, new methods of dye/tracer coupling have the potential to provide a more rigorous basis for evaluating gap junctions and electrotonic communication between neurons in the mammalian central nervous system. Therefore, recent data continue to suggest that gap junctions and electrotonic coupling play an important role in neural integration, although additional studies using new techniques will be needed to address some of the controversial issues that have arisen over the last several decades.     

SR/ER-mitochondrial local communication: Calcium and ROS

Mitochondria form junctions with the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER), which support signal transduction and biosynthetic pathways and affect organellar distribution. Recently, these junctions have received attention because of their pivotal role in mediating calcium signal propagation to the mitochondria, which is important for both ATP production and mitochondrial cell death. Many of the SR/ER-mitochondrial calcium transporters and signaling proteins are sensitive to redox regulation and are directly exposed to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced in the mitochondria and SR/ER. Although ROS has been emerging as a novel signaling entity, the redox signaling of the SR/ER-mitochondrial interface is yet to be elucidated. We describe here possible mechanisms of the mutual interaction between local Ca²⁺ and ROS signaling in the control of SR/ER-mitochondrial function.     

Ephaptic interactions within a chemical synapse: hemichannel-mediated ephaptic inhibition in the retina

The two best-known types of cell-cell communication are chemical synapses and electrical synapses, which are formed by gap junctions. A third, less well known, form of communication is ephaptic transmission, in which electric fields generated by a specific neuron alter the excitability of neighboring neurons as a result of their anatomical and electrical proximity. Ephaptic communication can be present in a variety of forms, each with their specific features and functional implications. One of these is ephaptic modulation within a chemical synapse. This type of communication has recently been proposed for the cone-horizontal cell synapse in the vertebrate retina. Evidence indicates that the extracellular potential in the synaptic terminal of photoreceptors is modulated by current flowing through connexin hemichannels at the tips of the horizontal cell dendrites, mediating negative feedback from horizontal cells to cones. This example can be added to the growing list of cases of ephaptic communication in the central nervous system.     

Microdomain Effects on Transverse Cardiac Propagation

The effect of gap junctional coupling, sodium ion channel distribution, and extracellular conductivity on transverse conduction in cardiac tissue is explored using a microdomain model that incorporates aspects of the inhomogeneous cellular structure. The propagation velocities found in our model are compared to those in the classic bidomain model and indicate a strong ephaptic microdomain contribution to conduction depending on the parameter regime. We show that ephaptic effects can be quite significant in the junctional spaces between cells, and that the cell activation sequence is modified substantially by these effects. Further, we find that transverse propagation can be maintained by ephaptic effects, even in the absence of gap junctional coupling. The mechanism by which this occurs is found to be cablelike in that the junctional regions act like inverted cables. Our results provide insight into several recent experimental studies that indirectly indicate a mode of action potential propagation that does not rely exclusively on gap junctions.     

Microdomain Effects on Transverse Cardiac Propagation

The effect of gap junctional coupling, sodium ion channel distribution, and extracellular conductivity on transverse conduction in cardiac tissue is explored using a microdomain model that incorporates aspects of the inhomogeneous cellular structure. The propagation velocities found in our model are compared to those in the classic bidomain model and indicate a strong ephaptic microdomain contribution to conduction depending on the parameter regime. We show that ephaptic effects can be quite significant in the junctional spaces between cells, and that the cell activation sequence is modified substantially by these effects. Further, we find that transverse propagation can be maintained by ephaptic effects, even in the absence of gap junctional coupling. The mechanism by which this occurs is found to be cablelike in that the junctional regions act like inverted cables. Our results provide insight into several recent experimental studies that indirectly indicate a mode of action potential propagation that does not rely exclusively on gap junctions.     

Characterization of the Connexin45 Carboxyl-Terminal Domain Structure and Interactions with Molecular Partners

Mechanisms underlying the initiation and persistence of lethal cardiac rhythms are of significant clinical and scientific interests. Gap junctions are principally involved in forming the electrical connections between myocytes, and changes in distribution, density, and properties are consistent characteristics in arrhythmic heart disease. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of gap junctions during normal and abnormal impulse propagation are essential in the control of arrhythmias. For example, Cx45 is predominately expressed in the specialized myocytes of the impulse generation and conduction system. In both ventricular and atrial human working myocytes, Cx45 is present in very low quantities. However, a reduction in Cx43 coupled with an increased Cx45 protein levels within the ventricles have been observed after myocardial infarction and end-stage heart failure. Cx45 may influence electrical and/or metabolic coupling as a result of pathophysiological overexpression. Our goal was to identify mechanisms that could cause cellular coupling to be different between the cardiac connexins. Based upon the conserved transmembrane and extracellular loop segments, our focus was on identifying features within the divergent cytoplasmic portions. Here, we biophysically characterize the carboxyl-terminal domain of Cx45 (Cx45CT). Purification revealed the possibility of oligomeric species, which was confirmed by analytical ultracentrifugation experiments. Sedimentation equilibrium and circular dichroism studies of different Cx45CT constructs identified one region of α-helical structure (A333-N361) that mediates CT dimerization through hydrophobic contacts. Interestingly, the binding affinity of Cx45CT dimerization is 1000-fold stronger than Cx43CT dimerization. Cx45CT resonance assignments were also used to identify the binding sites and affinities of molecular partners involved in the Cx45 regulation; although none disrupted dimerization, many of these proteins interacted within one intrinsically disordered region (P278-P285). This domain has similarities with other cardiac connexins, and we propose they constitute a master regulatory domain, which contains overlapping molecular partner binding, cis-trans proline isomerization, and phosphorylation sites.     

Characterization of the Connexin45 Carboxyl-Terminal Domain Structure and Interactions with Molecular Partners

Mechanisms underlying the initiation and persistence of lethal cardiac rhythms are of significant clinical and scientific interests. Gap junctions are principally involved in forming the electrical connections between myocytes, and changes in distribution, density, and properties are consistent characteristics in arrhythmic heart disease. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of gap junctions during normal and abnormal impulse propagation are essential in the control of arrhythmias. For example, Cx45 is predominately expressed in the specialized myocytes of the impulse generation and conduction system. In both ventricular and atrial human working myocytes, Cx45 is present in very low quantities. However, a reduction in Cx43 coupled with an increased Cx45 protein levels within the ventricles have been observed after myocardial infarction and end-stage heart failure. Cx45 may influence electrical and/or metabolic coupling as a result of pathophysiological overexpression. Our goal was to identify mechanisms that could cause cellular coupling to be different between the cardiac connexins. Based upon the conserved transmembrane and extracellular loop segments, our focus was on identifying features within the divergent cytoplasmic portions. Here, we biophysically characterize the carboxyl-terminal domain of Cx45 (Cx45CT). Purification revealed the possibility of oligomeric species, which was confirmed by analytical ultracentrifugation experiments. Sedimentation equilibrium and circular dichroism studies of different Cx45CT constructs identified one region of α-helical structure (A333-N361) that mediates CT dimerization through hydrophobic contacts. Interestingly, the binding affinity of Cx45CT dimerization is 1000-fold stronger than Cx43CT dimerization. Cx45CT resonance assignments were also used to identify the binding sites and affinities of molecular partners involved in the Cx45 regulation; although none disrupted dimerization, many of these proteins interacted within one intrinsically disordered region (P278-P285). This domain has similarities with other cardiac connexins, and we propose they constitute a master regulatory domain, which contains overlapping molecular partner binding, cis-trans proline isomerization, and phosphorylation sites.     

Dynamic model for ventricular junctional conductance during the cardiac action potential

The ventricular action potential was applied to paired neonatal murine ventricular myocytes in the dual whole cell configuration. During peak action potential voltages >100 mV, junctional conductance (g(j)) declined by 50%. This transjunctional voltage (V(j))-dependent inactivation exhibited two time constants that became progressively faster with increasing V(j). G(j) returned to initial peak values during action potential repolarization and even exceeded peak g(j) values during the final 5% of repolarization. This facilitation of g(j) was observed <30 mV during linearly decreasing V(j) ramps. The same behavior was observed in ensemble averages of individual gap junction channels with unitary conductances of 100 pS or lower. Immunohistochemical fluorescent micrographs and immunoblots detect prominent amounts of connexin (Cx)43 and lesser amounts of Cx40 and Cx45 proteins in cultured ventricular myocytes. The time dependence of the g(j) curves and channel conductances are consistent with the properties of predominantly homomeric Cx43 gap junction channels. A mathematical model depicting two inactivation and two recovery phases accurately predicts the ventricular g(j) curves at different rates of stimulation and repolarization. Functional differences are apparent between ventricular myocytes and Cx43-transfected N2a cell gap junctions that may result from posttranslational modification. These observations suggest that gap junctions may play a role in the development of conduction block and the genesis and propagation of triggered arrhythmias under conditions of slowed conduction (<10 cm/s).     

Modulation of the frequency of glucose-dependent bursts of electrical activity by HCO3/CO2 in rodent pancreatic B-cells: experimental and theoretical results

The burst pattern of electrical activity recorded from pancreatic B-cells in response to 11 mM glucose shows a large islet to islet variability. The relationship between burst frequency and glucose sensing (the threshold for electrical activity and the graded increase in electrical response to glucose, i.e. active phase %) has not been investigated within the same islet. In this work, we show that low HCO₃ (5 mM) Hepes buffered solutions reversibly reduce the frequency of bursts compared to control (25 mM) HCO₃ buffered solutions in the same islet. There was no change in the threshold or active phase (%). Using the mathematical model of Sherman et al. 1988, we explored mechanisms for a change in frequency independent of a change in active phase (%). Increased exchangeable calcium pool size and increased cell to cell coupling were the two theoretical treatments which could reproduce the experimental data. We conclude that burst frequency can be modulated independent of the active phase and that alteration of a calcium pool size best fits the experimental data. Offprint requests to: P. B. Carroll     

Highlighting Kathleen Green and Mario Delmar,Guest Editors of Special Issue (part 2): Junctional Targets of Skin and Heart Disease

Abstract

Cell Communication and Adhesion has been fortunate to enlist two pioneers of epidermal and cardiac cell junctions, Kathleen Green and Mario Delmar, as Guest Editors of a two part series on junctional targets of skin and heart disease. Part 2 of this series begins with an overview from Dipal Patel and Kathy Green comparing epidermal desmosomes to cardiac area composita junctions, and surveying the pathogenic mechanisms resulting from mutations in their components in heart disease. This is followed by a review from David Kelsell on the role of desmosomal mutation in inherited syndromes involving skin fragility. Agnieszka Kobeliak discusses how structural deficits in the epidermal barrier intersect with the NFkB signaling pathway to induce inflammatory diseases such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Farah Sheikh reviews the specialized junctional components in cardiomyocytes of the cardiac conduction system and Robert Gourdie discusses how molecular complexes between sodium channels and gap junction proteins within the perijunctional microdomains within the intercalated disc facilitate conduction. Glenn Radice evaluates the role of N-cadherin in heart. Andre Kleber and Chris Chen explore new approaches to study junctional mechanotransduction in vitro with a focus on the effects of connexin ablation and the role of cadherins, respectively. To complement this series of reviews, we have interviewed Werner Franke, whose systematic documentation the tissue-specific complexity of desmosome composition and pioneering discovery of the cardiac area composita junction greatly facilitated elucidation of the role of desmosomal components in the pathophysiology of human heart disease.     

Assembly of the Cardiac Intercalated Disk during Pre- and Postnatal Development of the Human Heart

Background

In cardiac muscle, the intercalated disk (ID) at the longitudinal cell-edges of cardiomyocytes provides as a macromolecular infrastructure that integrates mechanical and electrical coupling within the heart. Pathophysiological disturbance in composition of this complex is well known to trigger cardiac arrhythmias and pump failure. The mechanisms underlying assembly of this important cellular domain in human heart is currently unknown.

Methods

We collected 18 specimens from individuals that died from non-cardiovascular causes. Age of the specimens ranged from a gestational age of 15 weeks through 11 years postnatal. Immunohistochemical labeling was performed against proteins comprising desmosomes, adherens junctions, the cardiac sodium channel and gap junctions to visualize spatiotemporal alterations in subcellular location of the proteins.

Results

Changes in spatiotemporal localization of the adherens junction proteins (N-cadherin and ZO-1) and desmosomal proteins (plakoglobin, desmoplakin and plakophilin-2) were identical in all subsequent ages studied. After an initial period of diffuse and lateral labelling, all proteins were fully localized in the ID at approximately 1 year after birth. Na_v1.5 that composes the cardiac sodium channel and the gap junction protein Cx43 follow a similar pattern but their arrival in the ID is detected at (much) later stages (two years for Na_v1.5 and seven years for Cx43, respectively).

Conclusion

Our data on developmental maturation of the ID in human heart indicate that generation of the mechanical junctions at the ID precedes that of the electrical junctions with a significant difference in time. In addition arrival of the electrical junctions (Nav1.5 and Cx43) is not uniform since sodium channels localize much earlier than gap junction channels.     

Regulation of gap junction coupling in the developing neocortex

In the developing mammalian, neocortex gap junctions represent a transient, metabolic, and electrical communication system. These gap junctions may play a crucial role during the formation and refinement of neocortical synaptic circuitries. This article focuses on two major points. First, the influence of gap junctions on electrotonic cell properties will be considered. Both the time-course and the amplitude of synaptic potentials depend,inter alia, on the integration capabilities of the postsynaptic neurons. These capabilities are, to a considerable extent, determined by the electrotonic characteristics of the postsynaptic cell. As a consequence, the efficacy of chemical synaptic inputs may be crucially affected by the presence of gap junctions. The second major topic is the regulation of gap junctional communication by neurotransmitters via second messenger pathways. The monoaminergic neuromodulators dopamine, nordrenaline, and serotonin reduce gap junction coupling via activation of two different intracellular signaling cascades—the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway and the IP₃/Ca²⁺/protein kinase C pathway, 013 respectively. In addition, gap junctional communication seems to be modulated by the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP system. Since NO production can be stimulated by glutamate-induced calcium influx, the NO/cGMP-dependent modulation of gap junctions might represent a functional link between developing glutamatergic synaptic transmission and the gap junctional network. Thus, it might be of particular importance in view of a role of gap junctions during the process of circuit formation.     

The ultrastructure of the atrium in the adult newt Notophthalmus viridescens (Amphibia,Salamandridae)

The atrial wall of Notophthalmus viridescens is 25–75 μm thick and is trabeculated sparsely. Coronary vessels are absent. The endocardial endothelium is continuous and has 50–60 nm-wide fenestrae with diaphragms, rests on a discontinuous basal lamina and lacks occluding junctions. Cells found in the subendothelial connective tissue are xanthophores, melanophores, mast cells, fibroblasts, macrophages, and unmyelinated nerve fibers with Schwann cell investments. Epicardial mesothelial cells contain numerous 6–7 nm filaments and lamellar bodies which resemble myelin figures. Mesothelial cell junctions include maculae adhaerentes diminutae, desmosomes, and interdigitations. The epicardial connective tissue layer is more extensive than that of the endocardium, with xanthophores and melanophores rarely present and nerve fibers never observed. The myocardium consists of a mesh-work of myocytes 3–5 cell layers thick with little intervening connective tissue. Myocytes are 6–10 μm in diameter and have two or three peripheral myofibrillae. Typical A, I, H, Z, and M bands are present with a sarcomere length of 2.5 μm. T tubules are not observed. The sarcoplasmic reticulum has subsarcolemmal dilations. The nuclear pole region contains abundant mitochondria and atrial granules, extensive Golgi, and elements of smooth and rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum. Lateral intercellular junctions consisting of dense plaques, frequently continuous with Z-line material, are common. Oblique and transversely oriented junctions consisting of primarily of fascia adhaerentes, are present. It appears that amphibian atrial myocytes more closely resemble those of the amphibian ventricle than those of the mammalian atrium. Structural differences between amphibian atrial and ventricular myocytes seem to be quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.     

嗜热丁烷氧化古菌Candidatus Syntrophoarchaeum烷基转移酶MtaA催化丁基辅酶M的分子机制研究

【背景】嗜热古菌Candidatus Syntrophoarchaeum可以与硫酸盐还原细菌共生,通过逆转产甲烷途径进行正丁烷的氧化,但在该过程中负责催化丁基辅酶M氧化的酶尚未确定。【目的】利用分子动力学模拟证明Ca.Syntrophoarchaeum中mta A基因编码的蛋白可以特异性催化丁基辅酶M中丁基的转移,并非转移甲基。【方法】使用Methanosarcina mazei辅酶M甲基转移酶Mta A的晶体结构(PDB ID:4ay8)作为模板,对Mta A_1 (Gen Bank登录号OFV65993.1)和Mta A_2 (Gen Bank登录号OFV65678.1)进行同源建模。使用分子对接得到两者分别结合CH_3-Co M和C_4H_9-Co M时的结构,并用AMBER18进行分子动力学模拟。【结果】当Mta A_1和Mta A_2分别结合C_4H_9-Co M时,表现出与4ay8晶体结构类似的TIM-Barrel折叠三维结构,但在活性中心形状、Zn~(2+)与底物距离以及活性位点附近氨基酸配位方式等方面存在差异,这可能是导致Ca.Syntrophoarchaeum中mta A基因编码的蛋白催化丁基辅酶M氧化的原因。其中Mta A_2与4ay8结构更相似,活性中心氨基酸配位更完整,暗示其更可能具备催化活性。然而当Mta A_1和Mta A_2分别结合CH_3-Co M时,整体结构不合实际,活性中心Zn~(2+)与底物距离过远,表明底物几乎不可能与酶结合。【结论】Ca.Syntrophoarchaeum中的Mta A_1和Mta A_2很可能是特异性的丁基转移酶,而非催化甲基的转移,其中Mta A_2具备活性的可能性更高。