飞虱虫疠霉液培菌丝的凝胶化及其杀蚜活性*

用丙烯酰胺淀粉凝胶包埋飞虱虫疠霉(Pandora delphacis)液培菌丝,制成含营养和不含营养的虫霉凝胶,并测试其产孢能力及对桃蚜(Myzus persicae)的侵染力。经持续9 d产孢观察,相同菌丝量条件下,含营养的虫霉凝胶的累计产孢量(1910.9 个/mm2）为不含营养的虫霉凝胶的3.14倍（608.5个/mm2）和对照（纯液培菌丝）的4.69倍（387.5个/mm2）。用虫霉凝胶的“孢子浴”接种桃蚜居群（成蚜与不同龄期若蚜的混合）,在2.23个/mm2的剂量下,接种后第7 d的死亡率达82.3%。结果表明,丙烯酰胺淀粉凝胶作为载体材料,与飞虱虫疠霉的基本生物学特性相容,对虫霉的剂型化具有重要意义     

A proteomic approach to identifying proteins differentially expressed in conidia and mycelium of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum

Metarhizium spp. is an important worldwide group of entomopathogenic fungi used as an interesting alternative to chemical insecticides in programs of agricultural pest and disease vector control. Metarhizium conidia are important in fungal propagation and also are responsible for host infection. Despite their importance, several aspects of conidial biology, including their proteome, are still unknown. We have established conidial and mycelial proteome reference maps for Metarhizium acridum using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). In all, 1130±102 and 1200±97 protein spots were detected in ungerminated conidia and fast-growing mycelia, respectively. Comparison of the two protein-expression profiles reveled that only 35% of the protein spots were common to both developmental stages. Out of 94 2-DE protein spots (65 from conidia, 25 from mycelia and two common to both) analyzed using mass spectrometry, seven proteins from conidia, 15 from mycelia and one common to both stages were identified. The identified protein spots exclusive to conidia contained sequences similar to known fungal stress-protector proteins (such as heat shock proteins (HSP) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase) plus the fungal allergen Alt a 7, actin and the enzyme cobalamin-independent methionine synthase. The identified protein spots exclusive to mycelia included proteins involved in several cell housekeeping biological processes. Three proteins (HSP 90, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and allergen Alt a 7) were present in spots in conidial and mycelial gels, but they differed in their locations on the two gels.     

iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis of conidia and mycelium in the filamentous fungus Metarhizium robertsii

Metarhizium robertsii is widely applied in biological control via conidia application. To clarify the proteomic differences between conidia and mycelia and explore the underlying mechanisms of conidia as a unit responsible for dispersal and environmental stress, we carried out an iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation)-based quantitative proteomic analysis for two developmental stages from M. robertsii. A total of 2052 proteins were detected, and 90 showed differential protein abundance between the conidia and mycelia. These 90 proteins were primarily associated with stress resistance, amino acid and protein metabolism, and energy metabolism. Further bioinformatics analysis showed that these proteins could be mapped to 52 pathways, five of which were significantly enriched after mapping to KEGG pathways. Interestingly, many proteins involved in the significantly enriched pathway of peroxisome, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, including catalase, peroxisomal membrane anchor protein, formate dehydrogenase and isocitrate lyase, were identified with higher abundance in conidia. The results deepened our understanding of the conidia proteome in M. robertsii and provide a basis for further exploration for improving the efficiency of the fungi as biocontrol agents.     

蛹虫草菌株退化特征及鉴别方法

蛹虫草菌株在继代培养和低温长期保藏过程中极易退化导致子实体产量下降,对产业造成重大影响。本研究以正常菌株、PDA斜面长期4 ℃保藏导致退化的菌株和连续继代培养的菌株为材料,观察其子实体、菌落、菌丝形态和分生孢子数量,对菌丝细胞核、线粒体、活性氧积累和芽生孢子内脂滴进行染色观察;并对菌丝中虫草素、腺苷和麦角甾醇含量进行比较分析。结果表明PDA斜面长期4 ℃保藏和连续继代培养导致的蛹虫草菌株退化表型大多数一致,即退化菌株较正常菌株子实体产量降低、菌丝粘连打结、分生孢子数量显著降低、菌丝活性氧含量升高、细胞内线粒体数量减少、芽生孢子脂滴由弥散的小脂滴融合为大脂滴。然而,在菌落见光转色方面,长期低温保藏退化菌株基本不转色,而继代培养退化菌株转色不稳定;长期保藏退化菌株菌丝细胞核数目无明显变化,继代培养退化菌株细胞核数量明显减少;长期保藏退化菌株菌丝中虫草素、腺苷和麦角甾醇含量较正常菌株降低58%、41%和70%,继代培养退化菌株麦角甾醇含量无明显变化。因此,显微观察菌丝是否出现粘连打结及氮蓝四唑NBT检测菌丝活性氧含量,操作简单、用时较短,可用于大规模生产中蛹虫草菌株退化的检测手段;线粒体和脂滴染色也可作为退化菌株的鉴别方法;而生产中常用的通过菌落见光转色判断菌株优劣的方法需要慎重。继代培养菌株第4代开始出现明显的退化特征,因此在生产中使用的菌株最好控制在继代培养3代以内。     

Synchronous Conidiation of Piricularia oryzae by the Replacement Culture

For the purpose of studying the mechanism of conidiogenesis in Piricularia oryzae, methods were developed to separate the phase of mycelial growth from that of conidiation and also to evaluate them quantitatively.

When P. oryzae was grown on media with low carbon : nitrogen ratio and high nitrogen concentration, conidiation did not take place, in spite of its vegetative growth. Conidiation occurred in a very short period of time when the above mycelia were replaced on nutritionally poor media. Cellophane membrane was overlaid on solid medium and conidia were spread uniformly. Evenly grown mycelial mat which could be easily transferred onto the post-culture medium was obtained. As the preculture medium, MSA medium with carbon: nitrogen ratio of 6.3 and nitrogen concentration of 1.5 g/liter was used. The evenly grown mycelial mat was cut into small square mats of 1.44 cm² each and the small square mycelial mats were transferred onto the post-culture medium together with the cellophane membrane. The conidiation took place in the post-culture and the vegetative growth in the preculture and the conidiation in the post-culture could be observed separately and quantitatively.

Conidiation did not occur at all in the preculture and the degree of conidiation which took place in the post-culture varied according to the precultural conditions. This means that it is a certain state of physiological condition in the preculture which determines the degree of conidiation in the post-culture. The authers designated this state of physiological condition as the “latent activity of conidiation” (LAC). For the purpose of the quantitative estimation of this activity, we expressed LAC in terms of the degree of conidiation in the post-culture under a defined cultural condition. The LAC was subject to change very easily, declined rapidly and disappeared upon prolonged preculture. Only young mycelia showed to have this activity.

The influences of the precultural condition on the development of the LAC and vegetative growth were generally parallel. However, the LAC was generally more sensitive to the environmental condition than the vegetative growth, especially to the temperature change.

The conidia formed were uniform in size and had high rate of germination. Several strains of P. oryzae tested showed very similar behavior.     

Nutritional requirements of mycelial growth and sporulation of several biocontrol fungi in submerged and on solid culture

To develop fungal biopesticides, the nutritional requirements on available culture media that maximize mycelia and spore yields at low cost are essential for their mass-production. The objective of present study was to find the optimal combinations for the most mycelia yield in submerged and the highest spore yield on solid. Have a better understanding of their basic physiology, and have a better yield of mycelia and conidia with short time and low cost will help to provide valuable information for mass production and commercialization.     

猪苓分生孢子产生的电镜研究

The ultrastructure of conidia produced by the mycelia of Polyporus umbellatus was studied by use of scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The results suggested that only clamped (dikaryotic) mycelia produced aerial conidiophores with ovoid to rod-shaped conidia. There was a distinctive bulge near the top of the conidium. The contents of the conidia were dense. This type of conidium could be regarded as arthroconidia.     

Examination of immobilized fungal cells by phase-contrast and scanning electron microscopy

Conidia of Penicillium urticae were immobilized in kappa-carrageenan beads and then shaken, in a growth-supporting medium to yield an in situ grown population of mycelia. The physical stability of these beads and the degree of mycelial growth inside the beads were significantly affected by the concentrations of kappa-carrageenan and locust bean gum (LBG) in the bead matrix and by the porous or nonporous nature of the interior. Thus 16-h-old porous and nonporous beads, prepared from 1.25% kappa-carrageenan, 0.5% LBG, and conidia, possessed a very dense mycelial mass at the surface. Only the porous beads possessed a moderately dense mycelial mass at the centre. The conidia at the centre of nonporous beads either failed to germinate or formed very small germ tubes. When washed, 36-h-old porous beads were repeatedly (i.e., 48 h) transferred into nitrogen-free medium, the density of mycelia at the centre increased to equal that at the surface after three transfers or 8 days. Mycelia at the surface exhibited signs of physical damage, while those in the centre did not. The addition of 100 micrograms/mL of cycloheximide to these replacement cultures was reflected by the distortion of interior mycelia.     

Involvement of a conidial endoglucanase and a plasma-membrane-bound beta-glucosidase in the induction of endoglucanase synthesis by cellulose in Trichoderma reesei

The induction of endo-1,4-beta-glucanase synthesis by Trichoderma reesei QM 9414 was investigated in conidia, mycelia and protoplasts. Cellulose induced endoglucanase synthesis only in conidia, but not in glucose-grown mycelia or protoplasts. Cellooligosaccharides and sophorose induced endoglucanase synthesis in mycelia, conidia and protoplasts. Only conidia exhibited detectable basal endoglucanase levels, whereas beta-glucosidase activity was found in conidia, mycelia and protoplasts. The beta-glucosidase was inhibited in vitro by nojirimycin and glucono-delta-lactone. Addition of either of these inhibitors to the induction medium blocked de noro synthesis of endo-1,4-beta-glucanase with cellulose (conidia) or cellooligosaccharides (protoplasts and mycelia) as inducer, whereas induction by sophorose remained unaffected. The results are consistent with the assumption that basal constitutive levels of endoglucanase and beta-glucosidase are involved in the induction of cellulase synthesis by cellulose in T. reesei.     

Changes in growth competence of aged <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma viride</Emphasis> vegetative mycelia

Identical masses of submerged Trichoderma viride mycelia of various ages were used as inoculum for a second submerged cultivation lasting for 24 h. It was found that the growth yield of secondary culture was dependent on the age of inoculum. The growth yields increased when the age of primary culture was less than 3 d, and decreased down to zero when older mycelia were inoculated. The mycelia were living even after 1 month of submerged cultivation, as they formed conidia after inoculating onto solid medium. In order to elucidate underlying biochemical processes, developmental changes of specific activities of organellar marker enzymes were measured in the mitochondrial/vacuolar and microsomal fractions of mycelia. These activities changed during the growth of mycelia in a biphasic manner and their time courses were remarkably similar. Only the H⁺-ATPase activity decreased monophasically with the age of mycelia. Membrane-bound proteases of both membrane fractions changed differently upon ageing. These results could not be explained as a consequence of nutrient starvation and indicate that the prolonged submerged cultivation triggers coordinated series of biochemical events which leads to the loss of growth competence.     

Virus Particles from Conidia of Penicillium Species

Virus particles and their component double-stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) have been isolated from conidia and mycelia of certain Penicillium species. The conidia and mycelia of P. stoloniferum NRRL 5267 contained 75 and 85 mug of dsRNA/g (dry weight), respectively. Of the total dsRNA released from NRRL 5267 conidia, 10% was nonencapsulated. Conidia of P. brevi-compactum NRRL 5260 and P. chrysogenum Q-176 contained 2 and 120 mug of dsRNA/g (dry weight), respectively, whereas mycelium from the two species contained 3 and 95 mug of dsRNA/g (dry weight), respectively. No viruses were isolated from conidia or mycelia of P. stoloniferum NRRL 859. A method is described for disruption of both conidia and mycelia. The technique facilitates the isolation and characterization of fungal viruses and their component dsRNA and also potentiates surveying of fungal isolates for the presence of virus.     

蓝光和蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对蛹虫草形态的影响

蓝光是影响生物生长发育过程的重要因素,同时生物个体的生长发育过程中不断有蛋白质的泛素化降解。采用蓝光和蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132处理蛹虫草菌,观察蛹虫草菌落、菌丝体和子实体形态的变化。研究结果表明,黑暗条件下正常生长的菌落边缘圆滑一致,菌落之间融合无边界;MG132处理后,菌落之间出现明显的界限,边缘菌丝稀疏。蓝光条件下无MG132处理时,菌落较为单薄,转色明显;MG132处理时,菌落中间橙色,边缘颜色变淡。扫描电镜观察,黑暗条件下无MG132处理的菌丝自然弯曲,菌丝表面较为光滑,菌丝粗细差别不大且分枝较少,分生孢子表面较光滑。黑暗条件下MG132处理菌丝体,菌丝较直且分枝较多,菌丝容易断裂,分生孢子表面仍较光滑。蓝光条件下菌丝体弯曲减少,菌丝表面较为粗糙,单条菌丝常出现部分区段膨大呈不规则状,菌丝粗细差异较大,菌丝断裂较多;分生孢子呈扁平的椭圆状,表面有纹理,且粗糙。蓝光条件下MG132处理的菌丝体,菌丝较直,表面粗糙,菌丝整体变得更细,菌丝断裂较多;分生孢子呈不规则形状,表面纹理更深,粗糙有褶皱。此外,MG132可导致蛹虫草子实体畸形生长。结果表明,蓝光和MG132均可以影响蛹虫草的形态变化。     

稻瘟病菌单克隆抗体的研制及其对稻瘟病菌附着胞形成的影响

稻温病菌的分生孢子、芽管、附着胞的混合物作为抗原免疫BALB/c小鼠,取免疫小鼠的脾细胞与SP2/0骨髓瘤细胞在50%PEG下融合成杂交瘤细胞,用间接ELISA筛选阳性孔,获11株单克隆抗体。间接免疫荧光试验表明其中4株单克隆抗体2B4、4A1、1D1和2H4分别与孢子、芽管或附着胞有特异性结合;Western blotting分析发现2B4、4A1、1D1单克隆抗体分别与孢子、芽管表面的提取物有不同的结合带;此四株单克隆抗体均干扰稻温病菌附着胞形成,并抑制稻温病菌在叶表的致病性。     

Levels of sulfhydryls and disulfides in proteins from Neurospora crassa conidia and mycelia

Proteins extracted with 6 M guanidine at 90 degrees C from conidia (asexual spores) of Neurospora crassa contained ca. 25% more total protein thiol and a fivefold-higher content of disulfide bonds than proteins extracted from mycelia, as determined by labeling with iodo[14C]acetic acid. The total thiol content was 88 mumol/g of protein in conidia and 70 mumol/g of protein in mycelia. The level of protein disulfide was 18.5 mumol/g of protein in conidia and 3.5 mumol/g of protein in mycelia, by the iodo[14C]acetic acid labeling method. Confirmatory results were obtained with 5'5-dithio-bis-2-nitrobenzoic acid titration of protein thiol groups in 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate as well as by amino acid analysis of cysteic acid derivatives. Buffer-extracted proteins from conidia, but not mycelia, were found to contain enriched levels of protein thiols and disulfides per gram of protein as compared with guanidine hydrochloride extracts. It was demonstrated that the high disulfide content of crude conidial extracts was not due to measurable levels of mixed disulfides formed between protein sulfhydryl groups and cysteine. During germination of the conidia, the high disulfide levels of the conidial proteins remained constant. These data suggest that, unlike the disulfides of glutathione, the bulk of conidial protein disulfides were not reduced, excreted, or extensively degraded during germination.     

Protein changes during the asexual cycle of Neurospora crassa.

A method for synchronizing conidiation and isolating large numbers of cells at discrete stages of conidia development is described. Using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, we analyzed the protein profiles of mycelia, aerial hyphae, and conidia and observed that the concentration of 14 polypeptides increase and 38 decrease during the asexual cycle. Twelve polypeptides were present in extracts of aerial hyphae or conidia, but not mycelia, suggesting that they may be conidiation specific. The protein profiles of mutants defective in conidiation were also analyzed. Differences were detected in the two-dimensional profiles of protein extracts from fluffy and wild-type aerial hyphae. Polyadenylated RNA isolated from wild-type mycelia and conidiating cultures was translated in vitro in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate. Differences were detected in the polypeptide products specified by the two RNA populations, suggesting that changes in steady-state levels of polyadenylated RNAs also occur during conidiation.     

几种诱导黑麦草Loliump erenneL.内生真菌产孢的方法

从黑麦草Lolium perenne5个栽培品种中分离、纯化得到6株形态稳定的内生真菌,它们在常规培养条件下均不产生分生孢子。通过在PDA和MEA培养基上进行预培养、扫刷营养体、近紫外光照射以及在菌丝体上放置宿主植物等诱导方法,使其中5株真菌不同程度产生了分生孢子,通过分生孢子的形态成功鉴定了黑麦草内生真菌。实验证明通过诱导内生真菌产孢的方法并借助形态学依据来鉴定无性的内生真菌是可行的。     

Light-dependent subcellular localization of nucleoside diphosphate kinase-1 in Neurospora crassa

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDK) is a housekeeping enzyme localized in cellular organelles and distributed in various organs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In Neurospora crassa, NDK-1 is suggested to control catalases in response to heat, oxidative stress and light. In this study, we identified the presence of NDK-1 during most developmental stages in submerged mycelia, aerial hyphae, asexual conidia and perithecia, and the localization of it in soluble, mitochondrial, nuclear and membrane fractions in the mycelial cell. A light-dependent localization of NDK-1 was shown by Western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis using anti-NDK-1 antibody. In the mycelia, NDK-1 was compartmentalized on the plasma membrane in darkness, while it was relocated in the cytoplasm under light. These results suggest that NDK-1 protein was translocated from the plasma membrane to cytoplasm in response to light, and may interact with catalase.     

蛹虫草病原真菌虫草生齿梗孢Calcarisporium cordycipiticola的生物学特性研究

蛹虫草已经成为我国乃至东南亚地区极其重要的食药用真菌,虽然其子实体已经实现规模化生产,但在产业发展中遇到许多问题,真菌病害为其中之一,如引起蛹虫草“白毛病”病害的虫草生齿梗孢Calcarisporium cordycipiticola。本研究以虫草生齿梗孢为对象,研究了其生物学特性、发病特性及侵染特点。结果表明：该病原菌菌丝分枝较多,短时间内产生大量分生孢子;最适生长温度为25℃,此温度有利于该病害快速传播;其分生孢子比蛹虫草分生孢子耐紫外能力强。栽培过程中该病害多发生在蛹虫草生长发育后期,可以侵染培养基表面、子实体底部、中部和顶端等各个部位。人工接种发现该病原菌可以侵染蛹虫草生长发育的任意阶段,后期子实体被白毛覆盖。对峙实验发现虫草生齿梗孢菌丝逐渐生长到蛹虫草菌丝上,但未发现两菌丝互相缠绕的现象。对该病原菌基本生物学研究,将为建立该病害的早期检测及预防方法提供依据。     

Use of a Novel Sporulation Monitor to Quantify the EVects of Formulation and Storage on Conidiation by Dried Mycelia of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Zoophthora radicans

A novel piece of equipment, the sporulation monitor, is described for the comparison of conidia production from mycelia receiving diVerent formulation and storage treatments. This equipment was used to compare the viability of Zoophthora radicans mycelial samples treated either with 10% maltose solution or with distilled water before drying and storage for 0-12 weeks at 4oC. Freshly dried maltose-treated mycelial mat samples produced significantly more conidia for a significantly longer time than distilled water-treated mat samples of the same age. Very few conidia were produced from mats in either treatment after storage for 4 weeks or longer. There were great diVerences in conidia production from mycelial mat samples produced in diVerent fermenter runs. These results are discussed in relation to the potential for the use of dried mycelia in biological control programmes.