Bullet-derived lead in tissues of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Bullet-derived lead in game food products is an important source of human contamination. Careless removal of tissues from around the bullet pathway in the animal body results in elevated lead doses being ingested by humans. To assess bullet-derived lead contamination of soft game tissues, muscle tissue samples were collected from ten wild boars and ten red deer immediately after they had been shot. The samples were collected from around the entry and exit wounds, from around the bullet pathway at different sites along its length, and from a distance of about 5, 15, 25, and 30 cm from the bullet track. The individuals examined differed in the lead contents in their tissues surrounding the entry and exit wounds and at different sites along the bullet pathway. One of the animals showed as much lead as 1,095.9 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight in the tissue surrounding the bullet track near the entry wound, 736.0 mg kg⁻¹ being recorded around the exit wound.     

Grouping-patterns and inter-group relationships of Japanese wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax) in the Rokko mountain area

Grouping-patterns and inter-group relationships of Japanese wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax) were studied at a provisioning site in the Rokko mountain area, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, from 1982 to 1983. The observations were divided into four study periods. Almost all wild boars were individually identified and their kin-relationships were followed from the beginning of the study. To examine grouping-patterns of Japanese wild boars, the degree of association between any two individuals, based on coexisting time at the provisioning site, was analyzed for each study period. Mother and her litter group (MLG), female littermate group (FLG) and solitary individual were recognized grouping-patterns. Groups did not associate with each other. Male offspring separated from their mother before 1 year of age and become solitary. Separation of female offspring occurred before the subsequent parturition of their mother. The proximate cause of separation was increased aggression by the mother. After separation, female offspring formed a FLG. However, the FLG seemed to be generally a temporary one, maintaining its stability only until parturition of it's members. Thereafter adult females had no close association with any other individuals, except for their own infants. Male offspring disappeared from their natal area, while female offspring could remain there.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis infections in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Korea

Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis are important zoonotic pathogens with worldwide distributions. In Korea, several outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis and trichinellosis due to the consumption of infected wild animals have been reported. The purpose of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii and T. spiralis infections in wild boars killed in Korea from December 2009 to October 2011. A total of 521 wild boars hunted in eight provinces were examined for antibodies to T. gondii and T. spiralis by using commercial ELISA kits. Overall, 25.1% of serum samples from individual boars were seropositive for T. gondii and 1.7% were seropositive for T. spiralis. Seropositive for T. gondii was found in the boars in all the eight provinces investigated and for T. spiralis in four provinces. This is the first report on the seroprevalence of T. gondii and T. spiralis infections in wild boars in Korea. The consumption of undercooked wild boar meat may expose humans to a high risk of infection.     

Seasonal migration patterns of female sika deer in eastern Hokkaido,Japan

Fifty-seven female sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis), captured at the wintering area in the Shiranuka Hills in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, were radio-tracked during 1997–2001 to examine the factors affecting seasonal migration at the individual-landscape level. Ten of the 57 deers migrated between low-altitude summer home ranges and intermediate-altitude winter home ranges (the upward migrants). Twenty-nine migrated between high-altitude summer home ranges and intermediate-altitude winter home ranges (the downward migrants). Twelve used the intermediate-altitude home ranges all year round (the non-migrants). The remaining six were unknown. The summer home ranges of deer were widely scattered over an area of 5734km². Migration distances ranged between 7.2 and 101.7km. Deer showed high site fidelities to their seasonal home ranges. The upward migrants wintered in areas of less snow, higher quality of bamboo grass, and more coniferous cover than their summer home ranges. The downward migrants wintered in areas of less snow, higher quality of bamboo grass, higher winter temperature, and more southern slopes, but less coniferous cover than their summer home ranges. The non-migrants used year-round ranges with little snow, high quality of bamboo grass, and sufficient coniferous cover. We suggest that snow cover and bamboo grass are the factors affecting seasonal migration of the population and that coniferous cover is another factor for the upward migration.     

Tracing the genetic roots of the sika deer Cervus nippon naturalized in Germany and Austria

To determine the geographical origin of the sika deer (Cervus nippon) naturalized in Germany and Austria, we sequenced the mitochondrial control region for 214 individuals. Adding these sequences to previously published data from native sika deer across its natural geographic range, the total comes to 245, extending what is already known about the geographical variation in this sequence in Cervus nippon. From these sequences, a neighbour-joining tree was constructed. This tree showed that the 49 different mitochondrial (mt)DNA types are grouped into three distinct phylogenetic clusters, which correspond to different geographic areas. Similarities between sequences of the naturalized sika deer and those described from native sika deer from both southern Honshu, Kyushu with associated islands, and northern Honshu suggest that the ancestors of the sika deer populations in Germany and Austria originated from the Japanese archipelago. In contrast, there is no evidence that female sika deer of Chinese, Taiwanese or north Vietnamese origin were involved in the ancestry of the present sika population in Germany and Austria.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Police Dogs in Shenyang,Northeastern China

In recent years, worldwide surveys of Toxoplasma gondii infection in dogs have been reported. However, only limited surveys of T. gondii infection in police dogs have been available, including China. In the present study, we report the seroprevalence of T. gondii in police dogs in Shenyang, northeastern China. Sera from 291 police dogs were examined for T. gondii antibodies with the modified agglutination test (MAT), and 30.9% animals were tested seropositive. The results of the present study indicated a relatively high prevalence of T. gondii infection in police dogs in Shenyang, China.     

Toxoplasma gondii infection and schizophrenia: a case control study in a low Toxoplasma seroprevalence Mexican population

There are conflicting reports concerning the association of Toxoplasma gondii infection and schizophrenia in humans. Therefore, we determined such association in a Mexican population of Mestizo ethnicity. Through a case-control study design, 50 schizophrenic patients and 150 control subjects matched by gender, age, residence place, and ethnicity were examined with enzyme-linked immunoassays for the presence and levels of T. gondii IgG antibodies and for the presence of T. gondii IgM antibodies. Schizophrenic patients attended a public psychiatric hospital in Durango City, Mexico, and the control group consisted of individuals of the general population of the same city. Socio-demographic, clinical and behavioral characteristics from the study subjects were also obtained. Both the seroprevalence and the level of T.gondii IgG antibodies were higher in schizophrenic patients (10/50; 20%) than in control subjects (8/150; 5.3%) (OR=4.44; 95% CI: 1.49-13.37; P=0.003). The IgG T. gondii levels higher than 150 IU/ml were more frequently observed in patients than in controls (10% versus 2%, respectively; P=0.02). One (50%) of the two patients with recently diagnosed schizophrenia and none of the controls had T. gondii IgM antibodies (P=0.01). T. gondii seropositivity was significantly higher in patients with a history of cleaning cat excrement (P=0.005), and suffering from simple schizophrenia (ICD-10 classification: F20.6) (P=0.03) than patients without these characteristics. Toxoplasma seroprevalence was also significantly higher in patients with simple schizophrenia (F20.6) than in those with paranoid schizophrenia (F20.0) (P=0.02). This study provides elements to clarify the controversial information on the association of T. gondii infection and schizophrenia.     

Daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer (Cervus nippon) in China

Many ungulates are reported to use natural or artificial licks with seasonal patterns around the world. From December 2016 to August 2017, we used infrared camera to record the use of artificial licks in wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Zhejiang Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, China. We explored the daily rhythm, seasonal pattern and sex difference in lick utilization. In total, 12,043 videos and 22,901 pictures were collected. Our results showed that: (1) the lick visiting frequency was higher at night than that during daytime; (2) the difference in lick visiting frequency between females and males disappeared after taking into account of sex ratio; (3) the lick duration peaked in April during a year. These findings suggested that there were clear daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer. Seasonal change in lick use intensity was consistent with our prediction. These variations in lick use might be driven by both the physiological needs of the mineral elements in different life stages and the seasonal changes in climate and food. The reserve management authority should pay more attention to the supplement of licks in spring and summer to fulfill animal’s physiological needs.     

梅花鹿鹿茸尖端组织ESTs分析

文章通过对东北梅花鹿(Cervus nippon hortulorum)鹿茸尖端组织cDNA文库随机测序获得了906条高质量ESTs,906条ESTs拼接后代表了701个Unigenes,其中包括重叠群86个,单拷贝615个。Blast分析显示具已知和推测功能的基因580个(82.7%),通过Gene Ontology(GO)分类对获得的580个功能基因进行了包括分子功能、生物过程和细胞组分在内的3个层次的功能注释,并根据BLAST的注释结果及进一步的筛选与分析,共得到39条与鹿茸尖端组织生长发育相关的基因。cDNA文库的构建和ESTs分析填补了鹿科动物在NCBI公共数据库上基因组信息的空白,并为科学的开发和利用梅花鹿资源提供了重要的理论依据。     

The sexual function of wallowing in male wild boar (Sus scrofa)

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is a medium-sized ungulate that produces a large variety of marks. Traditionally, wallowing is an activity that has fundamentally been related to several processes such as thermoregulation, reduction in the number of ectoparasites or disinfection of wounds in the skin of males resulting from fights to reach females. In this study, I analysed another possible function of wallowing in free-ranging wild boar populations when temperatures are low and parasitic numbers are not significant. The results indicate that during the sampling time, from October to February, the number of wild boars with a mud layer on their skin was 47, out of a total of 558 wild boar analysed. Of these 47 wild boars, 44 were males and within this group, 40 individuals were adult males. The wallowed males were bigger and older than non-wallowed males hunted at the same time. In addition, I found that males wallowed mainly during autumn (90.9% of all cases). In the total number of wild boars analysed, I did not notice individuals with wounds resulting from fights other than from the hunting day. On the other hand, the analysis of the females reproductive systems indicated that the rut period took place during the last days of October and the first days of November. From these results, the coincidence of the rut period with the maximum of wallowing in adult males could be indicative of a sexual function of this activity.     

Dissemination of extracellular and intracellular Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites in the blood flow

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite. It has been thought that T. gondii can disseminate throughout the body by circulation of tachyzoite-infected leukocytes (intracellular parasite) in the blood flow. However, a small number of parasites exist as free extracellular tachyzoites in the blood flow (extracellular parasite). It is still controversial whether the extracellular parasites in the blood flow disseminate into the peripheral tissues. In this study, we evaluated the dissemination efficiency of the extracellular and intracellular parasites in the blood flow using GFP-expressing transgenic parasite (PLK/GFP) and DsRed Express-expressing transgenic parasite (PLK/RED). When PLK/GFP and PLK/RED tachyzoites were injected, as intracellular and extracellular forms respectively, at the same time into the tail vein of a mouse, many disseminated green fluorescent PLK/GFP tachyzoites were observed in the lung, the spleen, the liver and the brain. However, only a few red fluorescent PLK/RED tachyzoites were detected in these organs. When PLK/GFP and PLK/RED tachyzoites were injected in the opposite manner, that is, as extracellular and intracellular forms respectively, the majority of tachyzoites in these tissues were PLK/RED tachyzoites. Collectively, these results indicate that intracellular tachyzoites mainly disseminate throughout the body and that extracellular tachyzoites hardly contribute to parasite dissemination.     

First molecular identification of Sarcocystis miescheriana (Protozoa, Apicomplexa) from wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Iran

Sarcocystis isolate obtained from the thigh muscle of a wild boar (Sus scrofa), captured from Gilan Province, northern Iran, was subjected to molecular analysis. Genomic DNA was obtained using a DNA extraction tissue kit and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification of the 18S ribosomal DNA region yielded an 842 bp DNA band on agarose gel. Analysis of DNA sequencing by BLAST confirmed the isolate as Sarcocystis miescheriana and the sequence was deposited in GenBank by Accession No. GU395554. This is the first molecular identification of an isolate of S. miescheriana in Iran.     

Genetic variation and population structure of the Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Hokkaido Island, based on mitochondrial D-loop sequences

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D -loop region sequences (602 bp) from 141 samples of the sika deer Cervus nippon collected from Hokkaido Island of Japan were investigated to elucidate population genetic structure. All animals possessed seven repeat units (38 or 39 bp each) in the sequences. Comparison of the 602-bp sequences showed four sites of transitional mutations (A↔G or C↔T). Based on combination of the substitutions, six D -loop haplotypes (a–f types) were identified in the Hokkaido population, suggesting the occurrence of at least six maternal lineages. Distribution maps of the haplotypes constructed using the Geographic Information System showed that the distribution patterns differed from haplotype to haplotype. In particular, distribution of the major three types (a-, b-, and c-types) almost overlapped with three main areas of coniferous forests in Hokkaido. These results suggest that expansion of the sika deer population could have occurred through the habitat of coniferous forests after the historical bottleneck in Hokkaido.     

Toxoplasma gondii in wild and domestic animals from New Caledonia

Samples (serum or meat juice) collected from 205 animals in New Caledonia in April 2009 were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA using the multi-species ID Screen^® Toxoplasmosis Indirect kit (IDVET, Montpellier). Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 2% (1/49) of the pigs, in 3.3% (1/30) of the cattle, in 13.8% (4/29) of Rusa deers, in 16% (4/25) of the horses, in 32.8% (21/64) of the dogs, and in 50% (4/8) of cats. Statistically, no significant difference was observed between T. gondii seroprevalence and age or sex. No survey on the prevalence of T. gondii in animals has ever been conducted in New Caledonia and this is the first serological evidence of T. gondii in Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa). These results indicate an important circulation of T. gondii exists in the animal populations of New Caledonia. In view of humans being exposed, it is advisable to insist on sanitary education and on respect for good hygienic and food practice.     

Genetic characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii in wildlife from North America revealed widespread and high prevalence of the fourth clonal type

Little is known of the genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii circulating in wildlife. In the present study wild animals, from the USA were examined for T. gondii infection. Tissues of naturally exposed animals were bioassayed in mice for isolation of viable parasites. Viable T. gondii was isolated from 31 animals including, to our knowledge for the first time, from a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), five gray wolves (Canis lupus), a woodrat (Neotoma micropus), and five Arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus). Additionally, 66 T. gondii isolates obtained previously, but not genetically characterised, were revived in mice. Toxoplasma gondii DNA isolated from these 97 samples (31 + 66) was characterised using 11 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers (SAG1, 5′- and 3′-SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22–8, c29–2, L358, PK1 and Apico). A total of 95 isolates were successfully genotyped. In addition to clonal Types II, and III, 12 different genotypes were found. These genotype data were combined with 74 T. gondii isolates previously characterised from wildlife from North America and a composite data set of 169 isolates comprised 22 genotypes, including clonal Types II, III and 20 atypical genotypes. Phylogenetic network analysis showed limited diversity with dominance of a recently designated fourth clonal type (Type 12) in North America, followed by the Type II and III lineages. These three major lineages together accounted for 85% of strains in North America. The Type 12 lineage includes previously identified Type A and X strains from sea otters. This study revealed that the Type 12 lineage accounts for 46.7% (79/169) of isolates and is dominant in wildlife of North America. No clonal Type I strain was identified among these wildlife isolates. These results suggest that T. gondii strains in wildlife from North America have limited diversity, with the occurrence of only a few major clonal types.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in stray cats of Gyeonggi-do, Korea

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular zoonotic protozoan with a worldwide distribution. It infects humans as well as a broad spectrum of vertebrate hosts. Cats and wild felidae play crucial roles in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. This study was performed to survey the prevalence of T. gondii infection among stray cats in the Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea. A total of 174 stray cat blood samples were collected from Gwacheon-si (n=20), Bucheon-si (82), and Yangju-si (72). Positive sera for T. gondii were identified in 14 samples (8.1%) exclusively via the latex agglutination test, 28 (16.1%) via ELISA, and 23 (13.2%) via PCR analysis. The overall infection rate of female stray cats (29.2%) presented as higher than that of male cats (24.0%). This study suggests that T. gondii is widespread in the stray cat population of Gyeonggi-do, Korea. It is urgently needed to control urban stray cat population and to reduce the risk of zoonotic transmission of toxoplasmosis to other animal hosts and humans.     

日本日光地区森林中梅花鹿的夏季巢区面积和内部利用

为了估算梅花鹿(Cervusnippon)巢区面积和内部利用以及雌雄个体间的比较,于1993-1997年在日本国日光国立公园使用无线电遥测定位法测定了8头成年雌鹿和4头雄鹿(包括1头亚成年)在森林生境中的活动定位点。按照当地梅花鹿离开和返回越夏地的日期,使用每年6月1日至10月25日的无线电遥测定位数据,采用定值核心法(Fixed kernel)计算了梅花鹿的夏季巢区面积和内部利用密度分布。梅花鹿雄鹿夏季巢区面积(192·5±50·5 hm2)显著大于雌鹿(115·7±56·7 hm2,P=0·017) ,其半家区面积(HRS0·50)和核心区面积(HRS0·25)也显著大于雌鹿(依次为P=0·027和P=0·042) ,但巢区内部利用集中度指标Ah(HRS0·50/HRS0·95)和Ac(HRS0·25/HRS0·50)在雌雄鹿之间没有显著性差异(依次为P=0·999和P=0·234)。在无线电遥测的12头梅花鹿中, 11头个体的巢区为单核心型,只有1头成年雄鹿的巢区为双核心型。11头梅花鹿个体的混合数据显示巢区面积和体重之间存在显著性相关(P=0·049) [动物学报52 (2) : 235 -241 , 2006]。     

Activity budgets and use of enclosed space by wild boars (Sus scrofa) in captivity

This research was conducted on a captive group of eight wild boars: Four wildborn adults (one male and three females) and four piglets (one male and three females), born in captivity two months before the beginning of the study. They were housed in the Rome Zoo in a 1,000 sq m enclosure furnished with trees, mud pools, a water basin, and two small barns. Data on eight behavioral states (sleeping, resting, rooting, eating, walking, standing, scratching, and nursing) were collected by instantaneous sampling at 10-minute intervals. The spatial location of each subject was also noted, as well as closeness to conspecifics. Results showed that adults and piglets differed in their activity budgets. Activity patterns showed a significant correlation with the mean temperatures. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the use of the exhibit areas between adults and piglets. This study suggests a social structure in which the core is constituted by females and their yearlings. The nonbreeding female has a more marginal position than the breeding ones. Finally, the male tends to be even more peripheral and solitary. Our results are partly consistent with the data obtained in studies on free-ranging wild boars (Mauget, 1980; Dardaillon, 1984).     

Seroprevalence of Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Toxoplasma gondii in domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in China

The breeding of domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) for human consumption has a long tradition in China. Infections that can affect the production of meat or even be transmitted from animals to humans are important to monitor, especially for public health reasons as well as for their impact on animal health. Thus, a total of 1,132 domestic rabbit sera from 4 regions in China were collected for serological screening for Encephalitozoon cuniculi and for Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA and modified agglutination test (MAT), respectively. Antibodies to E. cuniculi were detected in 248/1,132 (21.9%) sera tested while antibodies against T. gondii revealed a seroprevalence of 51/1,132 (4.5%). We believe that the present results are of epidemiological implications and public health importance due to the acknowledged susceptibility of humans to E. cuniculi and T. gondii infections. Therefore, routine screening tests of domestic rabbits are proposed considering the zoonotic potential of these parasites.