Indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services: a synthesis across ecosystems and spatial scales

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, common indicators are needed to monitor the loss of biodiversity and the implications for the sustainable provision of ecosystem services. However, a variety of indicators are already being used resulting in many, mostly incompatible, monitoring systems. In order to synthesise the different indicator approaches and to detect gaps in the development of common indicator systems, we examined 531 indicators that have been reported in 617 peer‐reviewed journal articles between 1997 and 2007. Special emphasis was placed on comparing indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services across ecosystems (forests, grass‐ and shrublands, wetlands, rivers, lakes, soils and agro‐ecosystems) and spatial scales (from patch to global scale). The application of biological indicators was found most often focused on regional and finer spatial scales with few indicators applied across ecosystem types. Abiotic indicators, such as physico‐chemical parameters and measures of area and fragmentation, are most frequently used at broader (regional to continental) scales. Despite its multiple dimensions, biodiversity is usually equated with species richness only. The functional, structural and genetic components of biodiversity are poorly addressed despite their potential value across habitats and scales. Ecosystem service indicators are mostly used to estimate regulating and supporting services but generally differ between ecosystem types as they reflect ecosystem‐specific services. Despite great effort to develop indicator systems over the past decade, there is still a considerable gap in the widespread use of indicators for many of the multiple components of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and a need to develop common monitoring schemes within and across habitats. Filling these gaps is a prerequisite for linking biodiversity dynamics with ecosystem service delivery and to achieving the goals of global and sub‐global initiatives to halt the loss of biodiversity.     

Conservation planning for ecosystem services

Despite increasing attention to the human dimension of conservation projects, a rigorous, systematic methodology for planning for ecosystem services has not been developed. This is in part because flows of ecosystem services remain poorly characterized at local-to-regional scales, and their protection has not generally been made a priority. We used a spatially explicit conservation planning framework to explore the trade-offs and opportunities for aligning conservation goals for biodiversity with six ecosystem services (carbon storage, flood control, forage production, outdoor recreation, crop pollination, and water provision) in the Central Coast ecoregion of California, United States. We found weak positive and some weak negative associations between the priority areas for biodiversity conservation and the flows of the six ecosystem services across the ecoregion. Excluding the two agriculture-focused services—crop pollination and forage production—eliminates all negative correlations. We compared the degree to which four contrasting conservation network designs protect biodiversity and the flow of the six services. We found that biodiversity conservation protects substantial collateral flows of services. Targeting ecosystem services directly can meet the multiple ecosystem services and biodiversity goals more efficiently but cannot substitute for targeted biodiversity protection (biodiversity losses of 44% relative to targeting biodiversity alone). Strategically targeting only biodiversity plus the four positively associated services offers much promise (relative biodiversity losses of 7%). Here we present an initial analytical framework for integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services in conservation planning and illustrate its application. We found that although there are important potential trade-offs between conservation for biodiversity and for ecosystem services, a systematic planning framework offers scope for identifying valuable synergies.     

基于土地利用变化情景的生态系统服务价值评估: 以钱江源国家公园体制试点区为例

土地利用变化是生物多样性与生态系统服务变化的主要原因之一。评估土地利用变化对生物多样与生态系统服务影响对于政府决策具有重要作用。钱江源国家公园体制试点区是钱塘江的源头, 也是国家的重点生态功能区。本研究以钱江源国家公园体制试点区为研究区, 首先设计自然发展情景、规划情景、生态保护情景和开发利用情景等4种2025年不同土地利用变化情景, 随后采用InVEST模型和CLUE-S模型分析不同情景下钱江源国家公园水资源供给、涵养水源、固碳释氧、土壤保持、环境净化和生境质量等生态系统服务及其价值变化。结果表明: (1)核心保护区和生态保育区的生态系统服务价值占钱江源国家公园总价值的88.30%。(2)生态保护情景下钱江源国家公园生态系统服务价值最高, 有129.17亿元; 规划情景下生态系统服务价值次之, 有126.92亿元。(3)规划情景下钱江源国家公园水资源供给服务优于生态保护情景, 其他生态系统服务则次于生态保护情景。考虑到钱江源国家公园为下游提供重要的水资源这一功能, 将规划情景作为试点区2025年最优的土地利用变化情景。     

基于土地利用与土地覆被的长三角生态系统服务供需空间格局及热点区变化

快速城市化与土地利用变化导致区域生态系统服务供需失衡,进而使得生态环境恶化已成为共识。开展生态系统服务供需关系及其空间量化研究,有助于识别出区域中存在的主要生态环境问题及其关键驱动。以长江三角洲为研究区,基于土地利用与土地覆被和生态系统服务供给和需求评价矩阵的方法对1985—2015年长三角生态系统服务供需盈亏格局及热点变化进行分析,结果表明:1)长三角地区生态系统服务供给减少,需求增多,生态系统服务盈余区从1985年的40.9%下降至2015年的38.5%,生态系统服务赤字区面积占比从1985年的1.3%增长到2015年的10.6%,总体呈现供不应求的趋势; 2)沪宁杭城市发展梯度带上生态系统服务供需盈亏呈"V"型分布,且30年内城市中心及其附近的生态系统服务供需值下降更为明显; 3) 30年内长三角生态系统服务供需盈余热点区整体变化不大,30年内面积减少了0.1%;而赤字热点区则呈现出快速扩张趋势,面积占比30年内增加了14.9%。说明随着城市化进程的加快,长三角生态系统服务供需亏损状况更严重; 4)生态系统服务供需评价矩阵可以比较简便、全面的反映出生态系统服务供需盈亏状况,研究结果可对快速城市化地区生态环境与土地利用规划与管理提供有益参考。     

三峡库区生态系统服务功能重要性评价

在RS与GIS技术支持下,选择研究区比较重要的生物多样性保护、土壤保持、水源涵养和营养物质保持四个生态系统服务功能,建立生态系统服务功能重要性评价模型与方法,对三峡库区重庆段生态系统服务功能进行综合研究,定量揭示了研究区生态系统服务功能重要性程度及其空间分布规律.结果表明:(1)生物多样性保护高度重要以上地区的面积比达到了15％以上;极重要地区主要呈斑块状分布在东北部、中部和东南部.(2)土壤保持极重要区占据绝对优势地位,面积比为68.80％;土壤保持极重要区主要分布在万州及其东北部地区.(3)水源涵养一般重要区面积最大,其次为极重要地区;极重要区沿江河呈带状分布,高度重要区主要分布在极重要区两侧沿江河呈环带状分布.(4)营养物质保持一般重要区面积最大;其次是极重要区;极重要区基本呈条带形分布在植被覆盖较好的山脉及江河两侧.(5)生态系统服务功能极重要和高度重要区的面积占到了研究区总面积的近50％;极重要区基本沿主要江河两侧第一层分水岭和西部平行岭谷区的山脊呈条带形分布;高度重要区基本分布在极重要区两侧层环带形分布,少部分零散分布.     

面向多重生态保护目标的广东省生态系统服务退化风险情景模拟

稳定、协调、可持续的生态系统服务供给是维持区域自然生命系统、保障区域生态安全的基础。面临生态系统所受的人为与自然干扰,有必要准确评估生态系统服务退化风险,揭示区域生态安全和可持续性提升路径。现有研究多叠加所有生态系统服务以评估生态系统服务退化风险,未能面向区域生态问题或生态需求对不同类型生态系统服务进行整合。研究提出面向多重生态保护目标的生态系统服务退化风险情景模拟框架,考虑广东省生物多样性保育、水资源安全、自然灾害防范等生态保护目标,选取代表性生态系统服务类型(生境维持、水源涵养、水质净化、土壤保持、洪水缓解、热带气旋缓解),基于不同典型浓度路径情景评估2018—2035年生态系统服务退化风险。结果表明,2018—2035年广东省生态系统服务供给空间格局基本稳定,尽管有所退化、空间异质性强。生态系统服务退化风险的情景模拟表明,面向生物多样性保育目标的生态系统服务退化高风险区位于珠三角的深圳市、佛山市和江门市,以及粤西和粤东地区的湛江市、茂名市和揭阳市;面向水资源安全目标的生态系统服务退化高风险区位于珠三角的深圳市、中山市和江门市,以及粤西与粤东地区的茂名市、揭阳市和江门市;面向自然灾...     

The biodiversity‐dependent ecosystem service debt

Habitat destruction is driving biodiversity loss in remaining ecosystems, and ecosystem functioning and services often directly depend on biodiversity. Thus, biodiversity loss is likely creating an ecosystem service debt: a gradual loss of biodiversity‐dependent benefits that people obtain from remaining fragments of natural ecosystems. Here, we develop an approach for quantifying ecosystem service debts, and illustrate its use to estimate how one anthropogenic driver, habitat destruction, could indirectly diminish one ecosystem service, carbon storage, by creating an extinction debt. We estimate that c. 2–21 Pg C could be gradually emitted globally in remaining ecosystem fragments because of plant species loss caused by nearby habitat destruction. The wide range for this estimate reflects substantial uncertainties in how many plant species will be lost, how much species loss will impact ecosystem functioning and whether plant species loss will decrease soil carbon. Our exploratory analysis suggests that biodiversity‐dependent ecosystem service debts can be globally substantial, even when locally small, if they occur diffusely across vast areas of remaining ecosystems. There is substantial value in conserving not only the quantity (area), but also the quality (biodiversity) of natural ecosystems for the sustainable provision of ecosystem services.     

陆地生态系统服务与生物多样性研究进展

在生物多样性迅速消失的压力下,人类面临生态系统服务质量严重下降的威胁。为了使生态系统的重要功能更直观的展现在人们面前,许多学者把生态系统服务对人类的惠益进行整理分类,最有影响力的是千年生态系统评估(MA,Millennium Ecosystem Assessment)把生态系统服务分为供给、调节、文化和支持服务四类,服务的核心是生态系统的产品、过程和格局。生态系统服务的识别与分类是生态系统功能的对象化过程,也是以人类需求来审视生态系统的过程。生态系统通过结构-过程-功能这一途径来实现生态系统服务,各种服务的直接动力来源于自然界生物地球化学循环,生物多样性通过生态系统属性和过程来影响生态系统服务形成和维持。生物多样性越高,生态系统功能性状的范围越广,生态系统服务质量就越高、越稳定。全球变化中的土地利用和土地覆盖变化是生物多样性快速下降的主要原因,也是目前影响生态系统服务最广泛、最剧烈的驱动力,而这正是人类活动造成的,人类需求和生态系统有限的服务能力之间在不同尺度表现出严重冲突。要提高生态系统服务质量,要在不同区域进行重点不同的布局,尽可能的扩大生态系统规模和提高生态系统功能,核心是提高生物多样性水平。     

基于水量与水质的太湖流域水生态服务供需关系及多情景评估

耦合水量供给与水质净化的水生态服务供需关系的多尺度空间量化评估,有助于刻画和识别丰水区水质性缺水问题,并丰富水生态服务研究。在构建水量供给和水质净化服务供需评估方法的基础上,利用空间分析方法在现状情景基础上分别设置提升用水效率、改善土地管理方式和优化土地利用空间配置三种优化情景,并在栅格、子流域和县域三个尺度上开展基于水量供给和水质净化的水生态服务供需关系的定量评估,分别探讨了不同情景不同尺度下的水生态服务供需变化、空间响应及其机制特征。研究结果表明：(1)太湖流域的水量供需状况显著优于水质供需状况,节水能够有效改善流域内的水量赤字,而减量施肥和优化土地利用配置能够显著改善流域内的水质赤字。(2)多尺度的水量供给与水质净化服务供需解析,有助于精准识别不同尺度下亟需治理的关键区域。(3)水量赤字区主要集中在建设用地分布区域,耕地仍是引致水质赤字的主要原因,但随着尺度的逐渐增大,水质赤字区的建设用地面积也在不断增加。(4)优化土地利用结构方案是解决水质性缺水的最有效方法,但需要突破现有政策尤其是耕地保护政策的刚性约束,故耦合提升用水效率等方法是当前治理太湖流域“水质性缺水”问题首选措施。     

黄土高原典型退耕区生态系统服务权衡与协同关系研究——以延安市为例

在退耕还林的背景下,从多尺度分析黄土高原生态系统服务的时空变化及权衡协同关系对促进该区经济发展和生态效益多赢具有重要意义。以黄土高原退耕还林典型区延安市为例,运用InVEST模型评估1988-2018年农作物生产、碳储量、生境质量、土壤保持、产水量5种关键生态系统服务物质量,采用偏相关分析法探讨生态系统服务间的权衡与协同关系及其时空变化特征。研究结果表明：（1）受土地利用变化影响,延安市农作物生产水平、土壤保持年际变化趋势波动较大,农作物生产水平呈波动增加的趋势,土壤保持退耕还林前呈减少,退耕还林后呈波动增加的趋势,碳储量和生境质量呈逐渐增加的趋势,产水量呈逐渐减弱的趋势。（2）生态系统服务与土地利用格局联系紧密。碳储量、生境质量的高值区域以及产水量的低值区域随林地分布格局变化而变化。（3）协同关系是延安市生态系统服务间相关关系的主体,主要发生在碳储量、生境质量、土壤保持、农作物生产之间,权衡关系主要存在于产水量和其他生态系统服务之间。（4）市、县域生态系统服务间关系的差异主要发生在生境质量和土壤保持之间。     

Research needs for incorporating the ecosystem service approach into EU biodiversity conservation policy

Using a range of different methods including extensive reviews, workshops and an electronic conference, 70 key research recommendations and 12 priority research needs to integrate the ecosystem services approach into biodiversity conservation policy and funding were identified by a cross-disciplinary group of over 100 scientists and 50 stakeholders, including research funders and policy-makers. These recommendations focus on the ecological underpinning of ecosystem services, drivers that affect ecosystems and their services, biological traits and ecosystem services, the valuation of ecosystem services, spatial and temporal scales in ecosystem service assessment, indicators of ecosystem services, and habitat management, conservation policy and ecosystem services. The recommendations in this paper help steer the research agenda on ecosystem services into policy-relevant areas, agreed upon by funders, researchers and policy-makers. This research agenda will only succeed with increased collaboration between researchers across disciplines, thereby providing a challenge to the research community and research funders to work in new, interdisciplinary ways.     

Threats and opportunities for freshwater conservation under future land use change scenarios in the United States

Freshwater ecosystems provide vital resources for humans and support high levels of biodiversity, yet are severely threatened throughout the world. The expansion of human land uses, such as urban and crop cover, typically degrades water quality and reduces freshwater biodiversity, thereby jeopardizing both biodiversity and ecosystem services. Identifying and mitigating future threats to freshwater ecosystems requires forecasting where land use changes are most likely. Our goal was to evaluate the potential consequences of future land use on freshwater ecosystems in the coterminous United States by comparing alternative scenarios of land use change (2001–2051) with current patterns of freshwater biodiversity and water quality risk. Using an econometric model, each of our land use scenarios projected greater changes in watersheds of the eastern half of the country, where freshwater ecosystems already experience higher stress from human activities. Future urban expansion emerged as a major threat in regions with high freshwater biodiversity (e.g., the Southeast) or severe water quality problems (e.g., the Midwest). Our scenarios reflecting environmentally oriented policies had some positive effects. Subsidizing afforestation for carbon sequestration reduced crop cover and increased natural vegetation in areas that are currently stressed by low water quality, while discouraging urban sprawl diminished urban expansion in areas of high biodiversity. On the other hand, we found that increases in crop commodity prices could lead to increased agricultural threats in areas of high freshwater biodiversity. Our analyses illustrate the potential for policy changes and market factors to influence future land use trends in certain regions of the country, with important consequences for freshwater ecosystems. Successful conservation of aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services in the United States into the future will require attending to the potential threats and opportunities arising from policies and market changes affecting land use.     

“一带一路”地区生态系统服务关系的时空分异与区域响应

“一带一路”沿线多数发展中国家地处生态脆弱区,土地资源空间配置亟待优化。研究生态系统服务间的相互关系可以为土地利用决策提供定量化支持,但该关系在不同地域的表现形式有较大的差异性。基于InVEST模型,评估“一带一路”区域2000、2005、2010和2015年土壤保持、产水量、碳固定和生境质量4种生态系统服务时空变化,通过相关性分析和局部空间自相关分析等方法识别生态系统服务相互关系,以及其对不同地域特征变量的响应。就区域整体而言,土壤保持、产水量、碳固定和生境质量呈现中亚和西亚为一致低值区,而高值区分布不一致的空间格局;生态系统服务之间均呈显著协同关系,但冷热点格局的区域异质性显著。在生态区单元中,泰加林、温带草原和灌木的多种生态系统服务间为权衡关系;在国家单元中,生态系统服务间协同与权衡关系并存。产水量与碳固定间的协同关系对人口分布有良好的响应,而土壤保持与碳固定对人口分布的响应不明显。定量化评估生态系统服务及权衡关系,为区域土地资源优化配置提供依据,研究结果也为“一带一路”地区沿线国家间生态保护合作提供空间指引。     

Can ecosystem services be integrated with conservation? A case study of breeding waders on grassland

We review published studies to show that changes in soil moisture levels have significant impacts on a range of wading bird species that use UK lowland grassland, including wet grassland, and obtain their food predominantly by probing the soil. We examine both the hydrological and the ecological literature and assess how management options could alter (1) ecosystem services (via water quality and flooding) and (2) habitat quality for wading birds. The combination of biodiversity goals with broader ecosystem services has been widely advocated and we suggest that appropriate management at multiple scales (e.g. small‐scale: ponds; large‐scale: integrated washlands) could potentially provide both ecosystem services and habitat for wading grassland birds. However, there is only a limited base of evidence on which to assess the potential linkage between these two areas, particularly for non‐wading bird species. Future work should be directed at identifying (1) how crop yield, ecosystem services and biodiversity relate to each other, (2) the extent of land needed to be managed to benefit these multiple purposes and bring about measurable gain (e.g. one or two ponds may make significant inroads in reducing run‐off and pollution but make little difference to wading birds) and (3) solutions to the challenges of setting up management options at large spatial scales (e.g. catchments).     

Land use efficiency: anticipating future demand for land‐sector greenhouse gas emissions abatement and managing trade‐offs with agriculture,water, and biodiversity

Competition for land is increasing, and policy needs to ensure the efficient supply of multiple ecosystem services from land systems. We modelled the spatially explicit potential future supply of ecosystem services in Australia's intensive agricultural land in response to carbon markets under four global outlooks from 2013 to 2050. We assessed the productive efficiency of greenhouse gas emissions abatement, agricultural production, water resources, and biodiversity services and compared these to production possibility frontiers (PPFs). While interacting commodity markets and carbon markets produced efficient outcomes for agricultural production and emissions abatement, more efficient outcomes were possible for water resources and biodiversity services due to weak price signals. However, when only two objectives were considered as per typical efficiency assessments, efficiency improvements involved significant unintended trade‐offs for the other objectives and incurred substantial opportunity costs. Considering multiple objectives simultaneously enabled the identification of land use arrangements that were efficient over multiple ecosystem services. Efficient land use arrangements could be selected that meet society's preferences for ecosystem service provision from land by adjusting the metric used to combine multiple services. To effectively manage competition for land via land use efficiency, market incentives are needed that effectively price multiple ecosystem services.     

Catchment management in England and Wales: the role of arguments for ecosystems and their services

This study uses document analysis and interviews to explore how the use of arguments for biodiversity and ecosystem services has evolved in recent years in the water industry in England and Wales, with a focus on investments in catchment management programmes. Changes to land management practices within catchment areas can lead to improved water quality and lower treatment costs, and also ancillary benefits to the natural environment and various stakeholders. Our analysis reveals the increasing effectiveness of arguments associated with ecosystem service values in enabling the industry regulator (Ofwat) to support water industry investments in catchment-level conservation projects. Ofwat has adopted a much more flexible approach to regulation, moving from initial resistance to ecosystem service framings and a dominant focus on financial benefits to customers, to acceptance that customers have a legitimate interest in environmental quality and a willingness to accept some ‘beneficiary pays’ solutions. Companies are now required by Ofwat to include environmental impacts in cost-benefit analysis of investments, alongside assessment of customer preferences and support. This has facilitated investments in catchment management with positive results for water companies, customers, farmers and the natural environment. The shift in arguments in this industry matches a broader shift at European and UK levels towards greater use of economic evidence and payment instruments. The challenge now is to stabilise a secure regulatory environment in which companies are encouraged to pursue innovative methods to benefit the wider interest of customers and the natural environment, today and in the future. Arguments based on the value of water quality improvements and of the wider associated ecosystem services benefits have been, and remain, a key tool for achieving the environmental improvements and economic efficiency gains associated with successful catchment management initiatives.     

密云水库上游流域生态系统服务功能空间特征及其与居民福祉的关系

生态系统管理的一个重要挑战是在区域尺度上管理生态系统服务并提高当地居民福祉。以2009年土地利用数据和社会经济数据为基础,利用InVEST模型和空间制图在乡镇尺度上对密云水库上游流域水资源供给服务、土壤保持服务、水质净化服务、产品供给服务以及居民福祉进行了定量评估和空间特征刻画,并探讨了生态系统服务与居民福祉的不同关系模式。结果表明,流域内各乡镇土壤保持服务从上游到下游呈逐渐递增的趋势,水质净化服务从上游到下游整体上也呈逐渐递增的趋势,流域内水质净化服务功能与水资源供给服务、粮食供给服务、蔬菜供给服务以及畜牧产品供给服务在空间上呈显著负相关;基于生态系统服务与居民福祉在空间上的聚集特征,可将56个乡镇划分为低服务低福祉模式、供给服务依赖模式和高服务高福祉模式,针对这3种关系模式特点,可分别提出改善生态系统服务功能和居民福祉的管理措施。案例研究可为其他区域实施分区管理、协调生态系统服务功能保护与居民福祉的关系提供借鉴。     

A national approach for mapping and quantifying habitat-based biodiversity metrics across multiple spatial scales

Ecosystem services, i.e., services provided to humans from ecological systems have become a key issue of this century in resource management, conservation planning, and environmental decision analysis. Mapping and quantifying ecosystem services have become strategic national interests for integrating ecology with economics to help understand the effects of human policies and actions and their subsequent impacts on both ecosystem function and human well-being. Some aspects of biodiversity are valued by humans in varied ways, and thus are important to include in any assessment that seeks to identify and quantify the benefits of ecosystems to humans. Some biodiversity metrics clearly reflect ecosystem services (e.g., abundance and diversity of harvestable species), whereas others may reflect indirect and difficult to quantify relationships to services (e.g., relevance of species diversity to ecosystem resilience, cultural value of native species). Wildlife habitat has been modeled at broad spatial scales and can be used to map a number of biodiversity metrics. In the present study, we present an approach that (1) identifies mappable biodiversity metrics that are related to ecosystem services or other stakeholder concerns, (2) maps these metrics throughout a large multi-state region, and (3) compares the metric values obtained for selected watersheds within the regional context. The broader focus is to design a flexible approach for mapping metrics to produce a national-scale product. We map 20 biodiversity metrics reflecting ecosystem services or other aspects of biodiversity for all vertebrate species except fish. Metrics include species richness for all vertebrates, specific taxon groups, harvestable species (i.e., upland game, waterfowl, furbearers, small game, and big game), threatened and endangered species, and state-designated species of greatest conservation need, and also a metric for ecosystem (i.e., land cover) diversity. The project is being conducted at multiple scales in a phased approach, starting with place-based studies, then multi-state regional areas, culminating into a national-level atlas. As an example of this incremental approach, we provide results for the southwestern United States (i.e., states of Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado) and portions of two watersheds within this region: the San Pedro River (Arizona) and Rio Grande River (New Mexico). Geographic patterns differed considerably among metrics across the southwestern study area, but metric values for the two watershed study areas were generally greater than those for the southwestern region as a whole.     

Spatial assessment of ecosystem goods and services in complex production landscapes: A case study from south-eastern Australia

Many production landscapes are complex human-environment systems operating at various spatio-temporal scales and provide a variety of ecosystem goods and services (EGS) vital to human well-being. EGS change over space and time as a result of changing patterns of land use or changes in the composition and structure of different vegetation types. Spatio-temporal assessment of EGS can provide valuable information on the consequences of changing land use and land cover for EGS and helps to deal with this complexity. We carried out a quantitative and qualitative appraisal of selected EGS (timber production, carbon stock, provision of water, water regulation, biodiversity, and forage production) to understand how these have altered in a complex mosaic of landscape that has undergone significant change over the past 200 years.Land use and land cover types and their associated EGS were assessed and mapped using a wide range of readily available data and tools. We also evaluated the trade-offs among services associated with observed land use change. In contrast to work elsewhere, we found the recent changes in land use and land cover have an overall positive impact on various EGS due mainly to the conversion of pasture to managed plantations which are connected to the larger areas of remnant vegetation. Results also indicate that there was a high level of variation in the distribution of the EGS across the landscape. Relatively intact native vegetation provides mainly regulating services whereas the modified landscapes provides provisioning services such as timber and forage production at the cost of regulating services. Rapidly changing demand and supply of certain goods and services (e.g., timber, pulp or carbon) may also have positive and negative impact on other services. For example, increasing plantation rotation has positive impacts for biodiversity and carbon stock but reduces stream flow and water yield.     

Spatial covariance between biodiversity and other ecosystem service priorities

1.  Ecosystems support biodiversity and also provide goods and services that are beneficial to humans. The extent to which the locations that are most valuable for ecosystem services coincide with those that support the most biodiversity is of critical importance when designing conservation and land management strategies. There are, however, few studies on which to base any kind of conclusion about possible spatial patterns of association between ecosystem services and biodiversity. Moreover, little is known about the sensitivity of the conclusions to the quality of the data available, or to the choice and size of the region used for analysis.
2.  Here, we first present national-scale estimates of the spatial covariance in areas important for ecosystem services and biodiversity (richness of species of conservation concern), using Britain as a case study. We then explore how these associations are sensitive to the spatial resolution of the available data, the spatial extent of our study region and to regional variation across the study area.
3.  Our analyses reveal a mixture of negative and positive associations. In particular, the regionalization analysis shows that one can arrive at diametrically opposing conclusions about relationships between ecosystem services and biodiversity by studying the same question within different areas, even within a moderately small island.
4.   Synthesis and applications. In a policy context, the location-specific nature of relationships between ecosystem services and biodiversity underscores the importance of multi-scale environmental decision-making, so as to reflect both local conditions and broader-scale priorities. The results also suggest that efforts to establish general patterns of congruence in ecosystem services and biodiversity may offer a less constructive way forward than do more regional approaches.