动物克隆及其相关重编程机制研究

体细胞核移植技术已成功克隆出绵羊、牛、小鼠、猪、猕猴等多种动物,克隆技术也被广泛应用于畜牧业、生物医学、基础科研等众多领域。但是克隆的成功率较低,且克隆后代经常出现各种畸形,关键原因之一就是供体细胞重编程不完全。供体细胞核在进入去核卵后,会经历核膜降解、早熟染色质凝集、卵母细胞激活、核扩张、合子基因组激活等一系列事件,期间会发生染色质结构重编程、组蛋白变体合并、组蛋白修饰重编程、DNA甲基化重编程等多种重编程过程,只有重编程成功的胚胎才能正常发育成个体。该文总结了近年来克隆中重编程研究的进展并介绍了新兴的半克隆技术,希望以此加深对重编程机制的了解,从而使克隆的效率得到提高。     

细胞核重编程对克隆的影响

细胞核重编程是哺乳动物正常受精胚胎和克隆胚胎发育过程中的一个重要特性,主要是对表观遗传学特征进行重新编写,包括染色质重塑、组蛋白修饰、DNA甲基化、印记基因表达、X染色体失活等表观遗传修饰的改变。通过细胞核重编程,首先,受精卵和克隆胚胎的供体核停止其特有的基因表达程序,恢复为全能状态的基因表达程序;然后,受精胚胎和克隆胚胎的细胞再从全能状态重新进入分化状态,最终形成各种组织和器官。近年来,不少研究表明,克隆胚胎的细胞核重编程存在不同程度的表观遗传修饰异常,可能对克隆及其农业和医学应用有着重要影响。本文就正常和克隆胚胎细胞核重编程的研究进展以及克隆胚胎的细胞核重编程异常对克隆的影响作一综述,并对目前有关治疗性克隆前景的不同看法进行了讨论。     

细胞核重新编程的研究进展

细胞核重新编程是哺乳动物正常胚胎和克隆胚胎发育的关键性因素,主要表现为表观遗传学上变化。在受精卵形成和发育过程中,基因组的甲基化状态和组蛋白的结合形式均发生改变;在核移植产生的克隆胚胎中,供体细胞核也会经历核膜破裂、早熟染色体凝集等变化,重新获得分化的潜能而发育为正常的克隆动物。同时存在多种因素影响重新编程的进行。现对哺乳动物细胞核重新编程的研究进展进行综述,以期为该领域进一步的探索提供借鉴。     

体细胞核移植胚胎核重编程的研究进展

尽管在多种哺乳动物种系中成功制备了体细胞克隆后代,但当前的克隆技术仍有许多亟待解决的问题。体细胞核移植胚胎大多存在许多发育异常,造成了妊娠早期高流产率和出生后高死亡率。有研究认为,克隆胚胎发育障碍的一个重要的原因是供体细胞的遗传重编程不完全。哺乳动物种系中,DNA甲基化是胚胎发育期转录调节的必需步骤,除了单拷贝基因序列外,在基因组很多的区域都可以观测到克隆胚胎的异常甲基化。此外,克隆胚胎的基因印迹也存在异常。     

表观遗传信息在动物胚胎发育过程中的重编程

表观遗传修饰调控基因的表达对胚胎发育至关重要。近期,对表观遗传修饰在跨代遗传及早期胚胎发育重编程方面的认识获得了突破性进展。在此,着重阐述DNA甲基化修饰和染色体3D结构在跨代遗传和胚胎发育过程的重编程。在斑马鱼中,子代胚胎抛弃卵子的甲基化图谱,而完全继承精子的DNA甲基化图谱;哺乳动物早期胚胎发育过程出现了全基因组去甲基化的过程,父源和母源基因组都存在主动和被动的去甲基化过程。染色体3D结构在动物受精后,TAD(topologically associated domain)结构消失,并逐渐重新建立。这些重编程对胚胎的发育过程的基因调控起着重要的作用。     

哺乳动物体细胞核移植表观遗传重编程研究进展

体细胞核移植(somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT)是唯一能赋予体细胞基因组全能性的生殖工程技术,对动物种质资源保存、畜牧业发展和生物医学研究等具有重大意义。尽管该技术已经取得了许多研究进展,但哺乳动物克隆胚胎的发育效率依然很低,严重限制其在畜牧业和生物医学上的应用。导致克隆胚胎发育效率低的主要原因是体细胞重编程错误或重编程不完全,主要表现为:印记基因Xist表达异常、DNA甲基化异常,组蛋白修饰异常等。本文简要介绍了体细胞核移植技术,系统总结了哺乳动物克隆胚胎发育效率低的主要影响因素,以期为提升体细胞克隆效率相关研究与实践提供理论参考。     

牛不同供体核克隆囊胚Xist基因DNA甲基化程度的比较研究

利用亚硫酸氢盐测序法分析Holstein奶牛胎儿成纤维细胞(FFB)和输卵管上皮细胞(FOV)来源的克隆囊胚Xist基因DNA甲基化状况,以体外受精囊胚(IVF)和供体细胞作对照.克隆囊胚Xist基因处于较低程度的DNA甲基化状态,其中,FFB来源的克隆囊胚Xist基因DNA甲基化程度为43%,而FOV来源的克隆囊胚仅为17%.在体外受精囊胚中,Xist基因DNA甲基化处于中等状态,为49%.然而,在体细胞中,Xist基因的甲基化程度较高,FFB为66%,FOV为63%.这些结果说明,Xist基因DNA甲基化是可以被重编程的,所检测的CpG岛可能调节Xist基因的表达.结合已发表的实验数据,在同一个体中,FFB来源的克隆囊胚发育率比FOV的低,但其克隆牛胎儿的妊娠率和产犊率比FOV的高,这暗示不同供体核克隆囊胚的重编程是有差异的,并可能影响到胚胎及个体的发育.     

脊椎动物父系基因组主动去甲基化研究进展

基因组表观遗传重组出现在细胞发育潜能发生变化的时期。早期植入前胚胎的表观遗传重新编程对于细胞分化和胚胎的生长发育是至关重要的,这涉及到表观遗传印记(尤其是DNA甲基化)的消除和重建过程。脊椎动物许多物种中,DNA复制起始前父系基因组通常要经历主动去甲基化,而母系基因组则可以保持甲基化的状态不变,直到在随后的卵裂过程中被动去甲基化。综述了脊椎动物父系基因组主动去甲基化的机制,这种去甲基化在脊椎动物各物种间的差异,以及影响这种主动去甲基化机制的因素。另外,研究外源基因表达的表观调控机制(尤其是表观遗传重编程的异常现象)有利于理解转基因克隆水产动物中普遍存在的授精成功率较低,基因整合率较低,以及胚胎发育异常等现象,有利于更好地应用转基因克隆技术。     

DNA甲基化与克隆动物的发育异常

通过核移植技术得到的大多数克隆动物在出生前就已经死亡, 只有极少数可以发育至妊娠期末或者存活至成年, 即使是存活下来的克隆动物也伴有不同程度的发育缺陷和表型异常。DNA甲基化是支配基因正常表达的一种重要的表观遗传修饰方式, 是调节基因组功能的重要手段, 在胚胎的正常发育过程中具有显著作用。通过对DNA甲基化模式的研究, 人们发现克隆动物中存在着异常的DNA甲基化状态, 而这些异常的DNA甲基化模式可能就是导致克隆胚早期死亡以及克隆动物发育畸形的主要原因。文章主要论述了DNA甲基化的作用, 克隆动物中异常的DNA甲基化模式, 以及造成克隆胚胎甲基化异常的原因等问题。     

鱼类核移植与重编程

鱼类核移植是动物克隆研究的一个重要领域, 我国学者在上世纪60年代首创了鱼类的核移植研究。以斑马鱼为模式动物, 进行核移植与再程序化研究具有独特的优势。文章总结了鱼类细胞核移植研究的历史、斑马鱼核移植研究概况、以及影响核移植胚胎发育的因素, 特别是核移植胚胎基因组的表观遗传修饰, 如基因组DNA甲基化及组蛋白乙酰化和甲基化等的研究, 将有助于完善克隆技术并提高克隆的成功率, 推动克隆技术的广泛开展和应用。     

Reprogramming DNA methylation in the preimplantation stage: peeping with Dolly's eyes

Oocyte cytoplasmic factors can reprogramme the sperm genome during fertilisation or the somatic cell genome during cloning. Diverse reprogramming machinery acts sequentially and interdependently on the imported genome to drive it to totipotency, but their three-dimensional interactions in the cytoplasm remain unknown. Aberrant epigenetic phenomena in early cloned embryos indicate that parts of the somatic cell genome are unyielding to reprogramming forces, owing to their 'knotty' epigenetic features. This fastidious nature of the donor genome might prevent completion of epigenetic reprogramming. It might also help to explain the chronic developmental defects seen in many cloned embryos.     

Somatic cell nuclear transfer: infinite reproduction of a unique diploid genome

In mammals, a diploid genome of an individual following fertilization of an egg and a spermatozoon is unique and irreproducible. This implies that the generated unique diploid genome is doomed with the individual ending. Even as cultured cells from the individual, they cannot normally proliferate in perpetuity because of the "Hayflick limit". However, Dolly, the sheep cloned from an adult mammary gland cell, changes this scenario. Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) enables us to produce offspring without germ cells, that is, to "passage" a unique diploid genome. Animal cloning has also proven to be a powerful research tool for reprogramming in many mammals, notably mouse and cow. The mechanism underlying reprogramming, however, remains largely unknown and, animal cloning has been inefficient as a result. More momentously, in addition to abortion and fetal mortality, some cloned animals display possible premature aging phenotypes including early death and short telomere lengths. Under these inauspicious conditions, is it really possible for SCNT to preserve a diploid genome? Delightfully, in mouse and recently in primate, using SCNT we can produce nuclear transfer ES cells (ntES) more efficiently, which can preserve the eternal lifespan for the "passage" of a unique diploid genome. Further, new somatic cloning technique using histone-deacetylase inhibitors has been developed which can significantly increase the previous cloning rates two to six times. Here, we introduce SCNT and its value as a preservation tool for a diploid genome while reviewing aging of cloned animals on cellular and individual levels.     

Early and delayed aspects of nuclear reprogramming during cloning

The successful production of viable progeny following adult somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) provides exciting new opportunities for basic research for investigating early embryogenesis, for the propagation of valuable or endangered animals, for the production of genetically engineered animals, and possibly for developing therapeutically valuable stem cells. Successful cloning requires efficient reprogramming of gene expression to silence donor cell gene expression and activate an embryonic pattern of gene expression. Recent observations indicate that reprogramming may be initiated by early events that occur soon after nuclear transfer, but then continues as development progresses through cleavage and probably to gastrulation. Because reprogramming is slow and progressive, cloned embryos have dramatically altered characteristics in comparison with fertilized embryos. Events that occur early following nuclear transfer may be essential prerequisites for the later events. Additionally, the later reprogramming events may be inhibited by sub-optimum culture environments that exist because of the altered characteristics of cloned embryos. By addressing the unique requirements of cloned embryos, the entire process of reprogramming may be accelerated, thus increasing cloning efficiency.     

Somatic cell-like features of cloned mouse embryos prepared with cultured myoblast nuclei

Cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer requires silencing of the donor cell gene expression program and the initiation of the embryonic gene expression program (nuclear reprogramming). Failure to silence the donor cell program could lead to altered embryonic phenotypes. Cloned mouse embryos produced using myoblast nuclei fail to thrive in standard embryo culture media but flourish in somatic cell culture media favored by the donor myoblasts themselves, forming blastocysts at a significant rate, with robust morphologies, high total cell number, and a normal allocation of cells to the inner cell mass in most embryos. Myoblast cloned embryos continue expressing the GLUT4 glucose transporter, which is typically expressed in muscle but not in preimplantation stage embryos. Myoblast clones also exhibit precocious enrichment of GLUT1 at the cell surface. Both myoblast and cumulus cell cloned embryos exhibit enhanced rates of glucose uptake. These observations indicate that silencing of the donor cell genome during cloning either is incomplete or occurs progressively over the course of preimplantation development. As a result, cloned embryos initially exhibit many somatic cell-like characteristics. Tetraploid constructs, which possess a transplanted somatic cell genome plus the oocyte-derived chromosomes, exhibit a more embryonic-like pattern of gene expression and culture preference. We conclude that preimplantation stage cloned embryos have profoundly altered characteristics that are donor cell type specific and that exposure of cloned embryos to standard embryo culture conditions may lead to disruptions in basic homeostasis and inhibition of a range of essential processes including further nuclear reprogramming, contributing to cloned embryo demise.     

Nuclear transfer: Progress and quandaries

Cloning mammals by nuclear transfer is a powerful technique that is quickly advancing the development of genetically defined animal models. However, the overall efficiency of nuclear transfer is still very low and several hurdles remain before the power of this technique will be fully harnessed. Among these hurdles include an incomplete understanding of biologic processes that control epigenetic reprogramming of the donor genome following nuclear transfer. Incomplete epigenetic reprogramming is considered the major cause of the developmental failure of cloned embryos and is frequently associated with the disregulation of specific genes. At present, little is known about the developmental mechanism of reconstructed embryos. Therefore, screening strategies to design nuclear transfer protocols that will mimic the epigenetic remodeling occurring in normal embryos and identifying molecular parameters that can assess the developmental potential of pre-implantation embryos are becoming increasingly important. A crucial need at present is to understand the molecular events required for efficient reprogramming of donor genomes after nuclear transfer. This knowledge will help to identify the molecular basis of developmental defects seen in cloned embryos and provide methods for circumventing such problems associated with cloning the future application of this technology.