多种胶质瘤细胞系中获取胶质瘤干细胞方法的研究

目的:进一步证明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并寻找一种简洁的方法从不同胶质瘤细胞系中提取肿瘤干细胞。方法:将胶质瘤细胞以合适的密度接种于96孔板中,获取胶质瘤干细胞,并通过检测其自我更新能力、多向分化能力、成瘤能力及胶质瘤干细胞标记物的表达情况对其进行鉴定。结果:多种细胞系中均成功获取了胶质瘤干细胞。并且这细胞球表达神经干细胞的标志物,不表达神经细胞分化标志物,同时又有多向分化的能力,仅5000个细胞就可以在裸鼠颅内成瘤。结论:我们的研究结果表明胶质瘤干细胞是广泛存在的,并为以后进一步研究胶质瘤干细胞的特性及靶向胶质瘤干细胞的药物做铺垫。     

转录因子SOX9基因对脑胶质瘤干细胞干性维持的相关性研究

目的:应用慢病毒干扰SOX9的表达,观察其对脑胶质瘤干细胞干性维持的影响。方法:设计2条针对SOX9转录短发夹RNA(sh RNA)的DNA序列,构建慢病毒并感染胶质瘤细胞系U87、U251细胞,利用嘌呤霉素筛选稳转细胞。在转录水平及蛋白水平检测SOX9的沉默效果,利用荧光实时定量PCR(q RT-PCR)及免疫荧光染色检测相应干细胞相关标志分子SOX2、Nestin的表达差异。比较诱导形成的胶质瘤干细胞成球能力(肿瘤干细胞成球的直径),同时利用荧光实时定量PCR(q RT-PCR)及免疫荧光染色对干细胞相关标志物SOX2、Nestin的表达水平进行比较。结果:SOX9成功包装慢病毒并有效感染U87、U251细胞,实时荧光定量PCR检测其抑制率分别可降低83.74%和80.12%。并且在稳转细胞系水平相关干细胞标志分子表达含量有明显下降。在干细胞层面沉默SOX9可以明显抑制胶质瘤细胞诱导成球的直径(P0.01),同时免疫荧光显示肿瘤干细胞相关干性分子SOX2、Nestin的表达水平较对照组明显降低。结论:慢病毒感染沉默SOX9基因可以抑制胶质瘤干细胞干性的维持,为胶质瘤的生物治疗提供了重要的靶点。     

脑胶质瘤间质免疫组织化学研究——脑瘤浸润和转移机制的探讨

探讨脑肿瘤的浸润转移机制,利用免疫组化技术对原发性脑胶质瘤间质组成进行观察。免疫组化结果显示,CollagenⅣ、Fibronection、Laminin（CollⅣ、FN、LM）三种抗原在正常脑组织及脑瘤组织的血管基底膜和其表面被覆软脑膜均有表达,以FN表达最强。CollⅣ表达稍次,LM表达最弱,在部分胶质瘤细胞外基质有FN阳性表达,胶质瘤细胞外基质FN阳性表达率与胶质瘤的分化程度无关。各型各级胶质瘤血管基底膜部分呈线状连续完整,部分呈分层网格状增厚。本研究结果显示：活体胶质瘤细胞自身合成的FN可能有助于瘤细胞的组织移行能力,在一定程度上促成了胶质瘤的浸润性生长;胶质瘤细胞与转移瘤细胞转移侵袭能力不同,为进一步探索脑瘤的转移机制,应重点分析瘤细胞表面大分子物质表达的特异性。     

全反式维甲酸协同DAPT抑制胶质瘤干细胞的自我更新

前期研究脑表明,脑胶质瘤干细胞（glioma stem cells,GSCs）是胶质瘤发生和发展的重要因素,探索靶向干预GSCs生长有可能成为脑胶质瘤治疗的有效途径之一。该研究旨在阐明两种药物ATRA和Y-分泌酶抑制剂DAPT协同抑制GSCs自我更新的生物学效应。通过用台盼蓝排染法、克隆球形成试验和免疫印迹分析了两种药物的单独使用或联用对GSC样细胞PGCl和PGC2生长、成球能力和自我更新以及干细胞标志物表达的影响。结果发现,单独使用ATRA对PGCl生长有一定的抑制作用,而对PGC2生长几乎没有影响;DAPT对PGCs的生长抑制作用明显强于ATRA。高浓度ATRA（80μmol/L）能诱导PGCs的分化,降低PGCs成球大小,且成球效率降至5％～8％,而正常对照组为32％～35％;同样,DAPT（40μmol／L）也能降低PGCs成球大小,且成球效率降至2％～3％;低浓度ATRA（20μmol／L）和DAPT（5gmol／L）对PGCs自我更新能力和干性没有明显影响,而联合使用后其明显降低PGCs的成球大小,且成球效率降至3％～5％,促进细胞凋亡,并且明显抑制了干细胞标志物Nestin、CDl33、Sox2、Oct4的表达,提高了分化标志物GFAP的表达。该研究证明了低浓度的ATRA和DAPT能协同抑制脑胶质瘤干细胞PGCs的自我更新。研究结果将为脑胶质瘤的临床研究提供实验依据。     

EphA2对神经胶质瘤细胞系U251的凋亡﹑增殖﹑迁移和侵袭的研究

为了研究EphA2对神经胶质瘤细胞系U251在增殖、凋亡、迁移和侵袭方面所起的作用,用RT-PCR方法检测正常脑组织标本与两种恶性胶质瘤细胞系中EphA2 mRNA表达水平,然后用化学合成的针对EphA2基因的小干扰RNA(siRNA)下调该基因的表达,以检测其在U251中的生物学功能．证实了EphA2基因在正常脑组织标本中的表达水平远低于两种恶性胶质瘤细胞系．把体外化学合成针对EphA2基因的小干扰RNA(siRNA- EphA2)转染入U251细胞后,Western blot, 实时定量 RT-PCR检测到U251细胞中EphA2蛋白及mRNA表达水平都明显降低,并且细胞增殖受到显著抑制,同时出现了明显的细胞凋亡．伤口愈合实验(检测细胞迁移能力),Transwell小室实验(检测细胞侵袭能力)均表明,下调EphA2的表达后,细胞的迁移和侵袭能力较阴性对照组显著减弱．上述结果表明,在神经胶质瘤U251细胞中,EphA2与其恶性增殖及高度侵染性相关,可作为分子治疗的有效靶点．     

脑胶质瘤神经干细胞治疗研究进展

脑胶质瘤是神经外科最常见的恶性肿瘤, 发病率约占全身肿瘤的5％,占儿童肿瘤的70％,且呈逐年上升的趋势。脑胶质瘤恶性程度高,生长迅速,５ 年生存率很低,其中高级别胶质瘤具有极强的侵袭能力,目前尚缺乏很有效的根治方法。手术切除肿瘤的难度很大,术后极易复发,预后比较差,对人类健康乃至生命的危害极大。随着分子生物学的发展以及相关生物技术的应用,从基因水平揭示脑胶质瘤的发生发展机制,并寻求有效的基因治疗方法成为人类研究肿瘤治疗新的研究方向。Reynolds 和Richards等先后从成年小鼠的纹状体中分离出能够不断增殖且具有多向分化潜能的细胞群,并提出了神经干细胞（neural stem cell, NSC）的概念。NSC具有高度增殖和自我更新的能力,且有迁移功能以及与正常脑组织良好融合的特性,这为基因治疗胶质瘤提供了良好的基础。     

脑胶质瘤神经干细胞治疗研究进展

脑胶质瘤是神经外科最常见的恶性肿瘤,发病率约占全身肿瘤的5%,占儿童肿瘤的70%,且呈逐年上升的趋势。脑胶质瘤恶性程度高,生长迅速,5年生存率很低,其中高级别胶质瘤具有极强的侵袭能力,目前尚缺乏很有效的根治方法。手术切除肿瘤的难度很大,术后极易复发,预后比较差,对人类健康乃至生命的危害极大。随着分子生物学的发展以及相关生物技术的应用,从基因水平揭示脑胶质瘤的发生发展机制,并寻求有效的基因治疗方法成为人类研究肿瘤治疗新的研究方向。Reynolds和Richards等先后从成年小鼠的纹状体中分离出能够不断增殖且具有多向分化潜能的细胞群,并提出了神经干细胞(neural stem cell,NSC)的概念。NSC具有高度增殖和自我更新的能力,且有迁移功能以及与正常脑组织良好融合的特性,这为基因治疗胶质瘤提供了良好的基础。     

5-Aza-CdR对胶质瘤细胞生长及LRRC4基因异常甲基化的影响

LRRC4是一个新发现的胶质瘤抑瘤基因,它在多种胶质瘤细胞系和胶质瘤组织表达缺失或下调,前期研究结果表明胶质瘤细胞和组织中LRRC4的编码区未发生突变、缺失或重排.为了获得LRRC4作为胶质瘤抑瘤基因的进一步证据,采用去甲基化制剂5-Aza-CdR处理LRRC4表达缺失的SF126和SF767胶质瘤细胞,MSP和RT-PCR检测表明,LRRC4的启动子在表达缺失的SF126和SF767细胞存在完全的甲基化,而5-Aza-CdR能逆转LRRC4启动子的甲基化状态,恢复LRRC4的表达.MTf法测定显示,5-Aza-CdR使SF126和SF767胶质瘤细胞增殖受到明显抑制,并呈时间和剂量的依赖性.同时流式细胞仪检测显示,5-Aza-CdR使SF126和SF767胶质瘤细胞周期阻滞于G0/G1期.因此,5-Aza-CdR能抑制胶质瘤细胞SF126和SF767增殖并干扰其细胞周期,LRRC4启动子异常甲基化足其在胶质瘤细胞中表达缺失的重要机制,5-Aza-CdR能逆转LRRC4基因的甲基化,恢复LRRC4的表达,为LRRC4作为胶质瘤去甲基化治疗的靶标提供了科学依据.     

脐带间充质干细胞——组织工程的新视角

目的 从脐带中分离培养脐带间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cell, MSC) 并进行鉴定,阐明其多向分化的潜在作用.方法 收集健康胎儿脐带,分离培养脐带中的间充质干细胞,以流式细胞仪对培养的间充质干细胞进行细胞表面标志检测,多种成分联合诱导其向脂肪、成骨方向分化,细胞化学染色检测诱导后的细胞变化.结果 脐带中分离培养的间充质干细胞不表达造血细胞系的标志CD34、CD45、HLA-DR,强表达CD105、CD44、CD90,在适当的诱导条件下可向脂肪及成骨方向分化.结论 脐带中存在具有多向分化潜能的间充质干细胞.     

钾离子通道与神经胶质瘤关系的研究进展

钾离子通道为组织细胞内分布最广、种类最多的离子通道,在细胞增殖、分化及肿瘤细胞的侵袭转移中起着关键作用。神经胶质瘤是颅内最多发的恶性肿瘤,目前其主要治疗方式为手术加术后放化疗,术后五年生存率较低,寻找其相关发病机制及化疗靶点具有重要意义。目前已有多项研究表明,多种钾离子通道在胶质瘤中呈特异性高表达,且与胶质瘤的增殖、分化有密切关系,一些钾离子通道可作为胶质瘤的诊断和预防因子,有望成为未来胶质瘤化疗的新靶点,研究钾离子通道与神经胶质瘤的关系对胶质瘤的诊断、预防和治疗有重要意义。本文主要对近年来钾离子通道与神经胶质瘤关系研究的新进展进行综述。     

Imaging Glioma Initiation In Vivo Through a Polished and Reinforced Thin-skull Cranial Window

Glioma is the one of the most lethal forms of human cancer. The most effective glioma therapy to date-surgery followed by radiation treatment-offers patients only modest benefits, as most patients do not survive more than five years following diagnosis due to glioma relapse ^1,2. The discovery of cancer stem cells in human brain tumors holds promise for having an enormous impact on the development of novel therapeutic strategies for glioma ³. Cancer stem cells are defined by their ability both to self-renew and to differentiate, and are thought to be the only cells in a tumor that have the capacity to initiate new tumors ⁴. Glioma relapse following radiation therapy is thought to arise from resistance of glioma stem cells (GSCs) to therapy ^5-10. In vivo, GSCs are shown to reside in a perivascular niche that is important for maintaining their stem cell-like characteristics ^11-14. Central to the organization of the GSC niche are vascular endothelial cells ¹². Existing evidence suggests that GSCs and their interaction with the vascular endothelial cells are important for tumor development, and identify GSCs and their interaction with endothelial cells as important therapeutic targets for glioma. The presence of GSCs is determined experimentally by their capability to initiate new tumors upon orthotopic transplantation ¹⁵. This is typically achieved by injecting a specific number of GBM cells isolated from human tumors into the brains of severely immuno-deficient mice, or of mouse GBM cells into the brains of congenic host mice. Assays for tumor growth are then performed following sufficient time to allow GSCs among the injected GBM cells to give rise to new tumors-typically several weeks or months. Hence, existing assays do not allow examination of the important pathological process of tumor initiation from single GSCs in vivo. Consequently, essential insights into the specific roles of GSCs and their interaction with the vascular endothelial cells in the early stages of tumor initiation are lacking. Such insights are critical for developing novel therapeutic strategies for glioma, and will have great implications for preventing glioma relapse in patients. Here we have adapted the PoRTS cranial window procedure ¹⁶and in vivo two-photon microscopy to allow visualization of tumor initiation from injected GBM cells in the brain of a live mouse. Our technique will pave the way for future efforts to elucidate the key signaling mechanisms between GSCs and vascular endothelial cells during glioma initiation.     

Targeting A20 Decreases Glioma Stem Cell Survival and Tumor Growth

Glioblastomas are deadly cancers that display a functional cellular hierarchy maintained by self-renewing glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs are regulated by molecular pathways distinct from the bulk tumor that may be useful therapeutic targets. We determined that A20 (TNFAIP3), a regulator of cell survival and the NF-κB pathway, is overexpressed in GSCs relative to non-stem glioblastoma cells at both the mRNA and protein levels. To determine the functional significance of A20 in GSCs, we targeted A20 expression with lentiviral-mediated delivery of short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Inhibiting A20 expression decreased GSC growth and survival through mechanisms associated with decreased cell-cycle progression and decreased phosphorylation of p65/RelA. Elevated levels of A20 in GSCs contributed to apoptotic resistance: GSCs were less susceptible to TNFα-induced cell death than matched non-stem glioma cells, but A20 knockdown sensitized GSCs to TNFα-mediated apoptosis. The decreased survival of GSCs upon A20 knockdown contributed to the reduced ability of these cells to self-renew in primary and secondary neurosphere formation assays. The tumorigenic potential of GSCs was decreased with A20 targeting, resulting in increased survival of mice bearing human glioma xenografts. In silico analysis of a glioma patient genomic database indicates that A20 overexpression and amplification is inversely correlated with survival. Together these data indicate that A20 contributes to glioma maintenance through effects on the glioma stem cell subpopulation. Although inactivating mutations in A20 in lymphoma suggest A20 can act as a tumor suppressor, similar point mutations have not been identified through glioma genomic sequencing: in fact, our data suggest A20 may function as a tumor enhancer in glioma through promotion of GSC survival. A20 anticancer therapies should therefore be viewed with caution as effects will likely differ depending on the tumor type.     

Topoisomerase I Inhibitors,Shikonin and Topotecan,Inhibit Growth and Induce Apoptosis of Glioma Cells and Glioma Stem Cells

Gliomas, the most malignant form of brain tumors, contain a small subpopulation of glioma stem cells (GSCs) that are implicated in therapeutic resistance and tumor recurrence. Topoisomerase I inhibitors, shikonin and topotecan, play a crucial role in anti-cancer therapies. After isolated and identified the GSCs from glioma cells successfully, U251, U87, GSCs-U251 and GSCs-U87 cells were administrated with various concentrations of shikonin or topotecan at different time points to seek for the optimal administration concentration and time point. The cell viability, cell cycle and apoptosis were detected using cell counting kit-8 and flow cytometer to observe the inhibitory effects on glioma cells and GSCs. We demonstrated that shikonin and topotecan obviously inhibited proliferation of not only human glioma cells but also GSCs in a dose- and time-dependent manner. According to the IC50 values at 24 h, 2 μmol/L of shikonin and 3 μmol/L of topotecan were selected as the optimal administration concentration. In addition, shikonin and topotecan induced cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 and S phases and promoted apoptosis. The down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression with the activation of caspase 9/3-dependent pathway was involved in the apoptosis process. Therefore, the above results showed that topoisomerase I inhibitors, shikonin and topotecan, inhibited growth and induced apoptosis of GSCs as well as glioma cells, which suggested that they might be the potential anticancer agents targeting gliomas to provide a novel therapeutic strategy.     

Processing of Primary Brain Tumor Tissue for Stem Cell Assays and Flow Sorting

Brain tumors are typically comprised of morphologically diverse cells that express a variety of neural lineage markers. Only a relatively small fraction of cells in the tumor with stem cell properties, termed brain tumor initiating cells (BTICs), possess an ability to differentiate along multiple lineages, self-renew, and initiate tumors in vivo. We applied culture conditions originally used for normal neural stem cells (NSCs) to a variety of human brain tumors and found that this culture method specifically selects for stem-like populations. Serum-free medium (NSC) allows for the maintenance of an undifferentiated stem cell state, and the addition of bFGF and EGF allows for the proliferation of multi-potent, self-renewing, and expandable tumorspheres.To further characterize each tumor''s BTIC population, we evaluate cell surface markers by flow cytometry. We may also sort populations of interest for more specific characterization. Self-renewal assays are performed on single BTICs sorted into 96 well plates; the formation of tumorspheres following incubation at 37 °C indicates the presence of a stem or progenitor cell. Multiple cell numbers of a particular population can also be sorted in different wells for limiting dilution analysis, to analyze self-renewal capacity. We can also study differential gene expression within a particular cell population by using single cell RT-PCR.The following protocols describe our procedures for the dissociation and culturing of primary human samples to enrich for BTIC populations, as well as the dissociation of tumorspheres. Also included are protocols for staining for flow cytometry analysis or sorting, self-renewal assays, and single cell RT-PCR.     

Comparison of glioma stem cells to neural stem cells from the adult human brain identifies dysregulated Wnt- signaling and a fingerprint associated with clinical outcome

Glioblastoma is the most common brain tumor. Median survival in unselected patients is <10 months. The tumor harbors stem-like cells that self-renew and propagate upon serial transplantation in mice, although the clinical relevance of these cells has not been well documented. We have performed the first genome-wide analysis that directly relates the gene expression profile of nine enriched populations of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) to five identically isolated and cultivated populations of stem cells from the normal adult human brain. Although the two cell types share common stem- and lineage-related markers, GSCs show a more heterogeneous gene expression. We identified a number of pathways that are dysregulated in GSCs. A subset of these pathways has previously been identified in leukemic stem cells, suggesting that cancer stem cells of different origin may have common features. Genes upregulated in GSCs were also highly expressed in embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells. We found that canonical Wnt-signaling plays an important role in GSCs, but not in adult human neural stem cells. As well we identified a 30-gene signature highly overexpressed in GSCs. The expression of these signature genes correlates with clinical outcome and demonstrates the clinical relevance of GSCs.     

MicroRNA-107 Inhibits U87 Glioma Stem Cells Growth and Invasion

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) are thought to be critical for resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy and for tumor recurrence after surgery in glioma patients. Identification of new therapeutic strategies that can target GSCs may thus be critical for improving patient survival. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that function as tumor suppressors or oncogenes. In this study, we confirmed that miR-107 was down-regulated in GSCs. To investigate the role of miR-107 in tumorigenesis of GSCs, a lentiviral vector over-expressing miR-107 in U87GSCs was constructed. We found that over-expression of miR-107 suppressed proliferation and down-regulated Notch2 protein and stem cell marker (CD133 and Nestin) expression in U87GSCs. Furthermore, enhanced miR-107 expression significantly inhibited U87GSC invasion and reduced matrix metalloproteinase-12 expression. miR-107 also suppressed U87GSCs xenograft growth in vivo. These findings suggest that miR-107 is involved in U87GSCs growth and invasion and may provide a potential therapeutic target for glioma treatment.     

Glioma stem cell proliferation and tumor growth are promoted by nitric oxide synthase-2

Malignant gliomas are aggressive brain tumors with limited therapeutic options, and improvements in treatment require a deeper molecular understanding of this disease. As in other cancers, recent studies have identified highly tumorigenic subpopulations within malignant gliomas, known generally as cancer stem cells. Here, we demonstrate that glioma stem cells (GSCs) produce nitric oxide via elevated nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS2) expression. GSCs depend on NOS2 activity for growth and tumorigenicity, distinguishing them from non-GSCs and normal neural progenitors. Gene expression profiling identified many NOS2-regulated genes, including the cell-cycle inhibitor cell division autoantigen-1 (CDA1). Further, high NOS2 expression correlates with decreased survival in human glioma patients, and NOS2 inhibition slows glioma growth in a murine intracranial model. These data provide insight into how GSCs are mechanistically distinct from their less tumorigenic counterparts and suggest that NOS2 inhibition may be an efficacious approach to treating this devastating disease.     

Proteasome inhibitors sensitize glioma cells and glioma stem cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis by PKCε-dependent downregulation of AKT and XIAP expressions

In this study we examined the effects of proteasome inhibitors on cell apoptosis in TRAIL-resistant glioma cells and glioma stem cells (GSCs). Treatment with proteasome inhibitors and TRAIL induced apoptosis in all the resistant glioma cells and GSCs, but not in astrocytes and neural progenitor cells. Since PKCε has been implicated in the resistance of glioma cells to TRAIL, we examined its role in TRAIL and proteasome inhibitor-induced apoptosis. We found that TRAIL did not induce significant changes in the expression of PKCε, whereas a partial decrease in PKCε expression was obtained by proteasome inhibitors. A combined treatment of TRAIL and proteasome inhibitors induced accumulation of the catalytic fragment of PKCε and significantly and selectively decreased its protein and mRNA levels in the cancer but not in normal cells. Overexpression of PKCε partially inhibited the apoptotic effect of the proteasome inhibitors and TRAIL, and the caspase-resistant PKCεD383A mutant exerted a stronger inhibitory effect. Silencing of PKCε induced cell apoptosis in both glioma cells and GSCs, further supporting its role in cell survival. TRAIL and the proteasome inhibitors decreased the expression of AKT and XIAP in a PKCε-dependent manner and overexpression of these proteins abolished the apoptotic effect of this treatment. Moreover, silencing of XIAP sensitized glioma cells to TRAIL. Our results indicate that proteasome inhibitors sensitize glioma cells and GSCs to TRAIL by decreasing the expression of PKCε, AKT and XIAP. Combining proteasome inhibitors with TRAIL may be useful therapeutically in the treatment of gliomas and the eradication of GSCs.     

The Expression of Connexins and SOX2 Reflects the Plasticity of Glioma Stem-Like Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant primary brain tumor, with an average survival rate of 15 months. GBM is highly refractory to therapy, and such unresponsiveness is due, primarily, but not exclusively, to the glioma stem-like cells (GSCs). This subpopulation express stem-like cell markers and is responsible for the heterogeneity of GBM, generating multiple differentiated cell phenotypes. However, how GBMs maintain the balance between stem and non-stem populations is still poorly understood. We investigated the GBM ability to interconvert between stem and non-stem states through the evaluation of the expression of specific stem cell markers as well as cell communication proteins. We evaluated the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of GSCs derived from differentiated GBM cell lines by comparing their stem-like cell properties and expression of connexins. We showed that non-GSCs as well as GSCs can undergo successive cycles of gain and loss of stem properties, demonstrating a bidirectional cellular plasticity model that is accompanied by changes on connexins expression. Our findings indicate that the interconversion between non-GSCs and GSCs can be modulated by extracellular factors culminating on differential expression of stem-like cell markers and cell-cell communication proteins. Ultimately, we observed that stem markers are mostly expressed on GBMs rather than on low-grade astrocytomas, suggesting that the presence of GSCs is a feature of high-grade gliomas. Together, our data demonstrate the utmost importance of the understanding of stem cell plasticity properties in a way to a step closer to new strategic approaches to potentially eliminate GSCs and, hopefully, prevent tumor recurrence.