Origin and evolution of primate social organisation: a reconstruction

The evolution and origin of primate social organisation has attracted the attention of many researchers, and a solitary pattern, believed to be present in most nocturnal prosimians, has been generally considered as the most primitive system. Nocturnal prosimians are in fact mostly seen alone during their nightly activities and therefore termed 'solitary foragers', but that does not mean that they are not social. Moreover, designating their social organisation as 'solitary', implies that their way of life is uniform in all species. It has, however, emerged over the last decades that all of them exhibit not only some kind of social network but also that those networks differ among species. There is a need to classify these social networks in the same manner as with group-living (gregarious) animals if we wish to link up the different forms of primate social organisation with ecological, morphological or phylogenetic variables. In this review, we establish a basic classification based on spatial relations and sociality in order to describe and cope properly with the social organisation patterns of the different species of nocturnal prosimians and other mammals that do not forage in cohesive groups. In attempting to trace the ancestral pattern of primate social organisation, the Malagasy mouse and dwarf lemurs and the Afro-Asian bushbabies and lorises are of special interest because they are thought to approach the ancestral conditions most closely. These species have generally been believed to exhibit a dispersed harem system as their pattern of social organisation ('dispersed' means that individuals forage solitarily but exhibit a social network). Therefore, the ancestral pattern of primate social organisation was inferred to be a dispersed harem. In fact, new field data on cheirogaleids combined with a review of patterns of social organisation in strepsirhines (lemurs, bushbabies and lorises) revealed that they exhibit either dispersed multi-male systems or dispersed monogamy rather than a dispersed harem system. Therefore, the concept of a dispersed harem system as the ancestral condition of primate social organisation can no longer be supported. In combination with data on social organisation patterns in 'primitive' placentals and marsupials, and in monotremes, it is in fact most probable that promiscuity is the ancestral pattern for mammalian social organisation. Subsequently, a dispersed multi-male system derived from promiscuity should be regarded as the ancestral condition for primates. We further suggest that the gregarious patterns of social organisation in Aotus and Avahi, and the dispersed form in Tarsius evolved from the gregarious patterns of diurnal primates rather than from the dispersed nocturnal type. It is consequently proposed that, in addition to Aotus and Tarsius, Avahi is also secondarily nocturnal.     

Using calls as an indicator for Antarctic blue whale occurrence and distribution across the southwest Pacific and southeast Indian Oceans

Understanding species distribution and behavior is essential for conservation programs of migratory species with recovering populations. The critically endangered Antarctic blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus intermedia) was heavily exploited during the whaling era. Because of their low numbers, highly migratory behavior, and occurrence in remote areas, their distribution and range are not fully understood, particularly in the southwest Pacific Ocean. This is the first Antarctic blue whale study covering the southwest Pacific Ocean region from temperate to tropical waters (32°S to 15°S). Passive acoustic data were recorded between 2010 and 2011 across the southwest Pacific (SWPO) and southeast Indian (SEIO) oceans. We detected Antarctic blue whale calls in previously undocumented SWPO locations off eastern Australia (32°S, 152°E) and within the Lau Basin (20°S, 176°W and 15°S, 173°W), and SEIO off northwest Australia (19°S, 115°E).In temperate waters, adjacent ocean basins had similar seasonal occurrence, in that calling Antarctic blue whales were present for long periods, almost year round in some areas. In northern tropical waters, calling whales were mostly present during the austral winter. Clarifying the occurrence and distribution of critically endangered species is fundamental for monitoring population recovery, marine protected area planning, and in mitigating anthropogenic threats.     

The social organizations of squirrel monkeys: Implications for ecological models of social evolution

“Squirrel-monkeys occur in a considerable number of slightly different forms, but all are built upon a similar body plan and have a basic color scheme. One of the larger races—from inner Perú—is also the most colorful and one of the brightest colored of all mammals. It may be taken as a point of departure. The top of the head and the upper and outer parts of the body and the upper side of the basal half of the tail are a vivid green, with a pepper and salt effect of yellow and gray. The face is pure white except for black spectacles, muzzle and chin; the throat, chest, underside, insides of limbs, and the underside of the basal half of the tail are brilliant daffodil yellow. The terminal half of the tail is jet black and rather bushy. The flesh of the hands is pale pink. Other races vary in the intensity of the green and yellow, so that some may be olive brown above and white below, and in the amount and arrangement of the black areas on the face and the tip of the tail. Some have almost naked ears, others have these organs clothed in short fur, and still others bear thereupon long tufts or fringes. All these variations seem to blend into the other geographically . . . some of these pure color variations may constitute valid regional subspecies or even species. . . .” I. T. Sanderson¹ (p. 77).     

云南松(Pinus yunnanensis)林外生菌根真菌的时空分布

2000年至2005年,调查了滇中及其附近云南松林下外生菌根真菌的生态分布,共采集、鉴定标本834号,计有27科39属211种（含变种、变型）。结果表明,红菇属（Russula）、牛肝菌属（Boletus）、乳菇属（Lactarius）、乳牛肝菌属（Suillus）、口蘑属（Tricholoma）、鸡油菌属（Cantharellus）和革菌属（Thelephora）等为云南松林下的主要外生菌根菌类群。它们的发生与分布受到气候（如：气温和降水）、植被（如：林龄、林地郁闭度和草本植被）、地形特征（如：海拔、坡向和坡度）、土壤条件（如：pH值、地表腐殖质和枯枝落叶层等）和人为干扰（比如：商业化采集、林木采伐、火烧和地表物清理）诸多因素的影响。总结为如下：（1）5a的调查结果显示,云南松外生菌根菌的分布表现出季节性变化的规律;其中以每年1、2、3月份的物种多样性为最低,雨季期间急剧增加,至中夏和秋末达到顶峰,种类最为繁多。（2）在海拔1500-2100m,云南松外生菌根菌种类随着海拔的升高而逐渐增加,至顶峰后,又呈缓慢下降趋势。海拔因素不但对其物种多样性,而且对于类群的组成也具有重要的影响。特定的类群往往发生在特定海拔范围。（3）随着云南松林龄的增加,外生菌根菌呈现由少至多的演替过程。外生菌根菌多样性随云南松林生长而逐渐增加的演替方式,可能与宿主光合作用产物、根部分泌物和土壤条件的逐渐变化有关。（4）人类干扰是云南松外生菌根菌物种多样性和类群组成的主要负影响因子。大规模的商业化采集可破坏或枯竭地下菌丝体,打破各物种之间的竞争平衡,减少孢子释放影响资源再生能力,进而直接影响到子实体的产生。外生菌根菌物种多样性的减少趋势会随林木砍伐和火烧强度的增加而加剧。地表枯枝落叶层与杂草密度也会影响子实体的产生,其中枯枝落叶层的厚度与云南松外生菌根菌子实体的发生呈负相关性,而被紫茎泽兰覆盖的云南松林地内也很少会发现相应的子实体。     

Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) use social information as an indicator of safety in dangerous environments

Avoiding predation is one of the most important challenges that an animal faces. Several anti-predation behaviours can be employed, yet simply using the presence of conspecifics can be a good signal of safety in an environment with potential predation hazards. Here, we show, for the first time, that past experience of predation causes bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) to aggregate with conspecifics, facilitating the identification of safe foraging patches. Bees were trained to differentiate between flowers that harboured predators and flowers that were predator free. When test subjects were subsequently presented solely with the previously predator-infested flower species, there was a significant preference to only land on flowers occupied by other feeding conspecifics. Yet, when safe flowers were made available to subjects previously entrained to discriminate safe from predator-occupied flowers, subjects ignored other bees and the social information potentially provided by them, demonstrating that attraction towards conspecifics is confined to dangerous situations. Our findings demonstrate a previously unknown social interaction in pollinators which may have important implications for plant–pollinator interactions.     

Abundance, diversity, and patterns of distribution of primates on the Tapiche River in Amazonian Peru

This work presents data on the relative diversity, abundance, and distribution patterns of primates in a 20 km2 area of the Tapiche River in the Peruvian Amazon. Population data were collected while the study area was both inundated and dry (March to September 1997) using conventional line-transect census techniques. Survey results reflected the presence of 11 primate species, but population parameters on only eight of the species will be presented, including saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis), Bolivian squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis), brown capuchins (Cebus apella), white-fronted capuchins (Cebus albifrons), monk sakis (Pithecia monachus), red titi monkeys (Callicebus cupreus), red uakaris (Cacajao calvus), and red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus). Woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha), night monkeys (Aotus nancymaae), and pygmy marmosets (Callithrix pygmaea) were also seen in the area. The data for the smaller-bodied primates is similar to that reported almost 18 years earlier, but the data for the larger-bodied primates reflect a loss in the number of animals present in the area. Pressure from hunters and the timber industry may account for declining numbers of large-bodied primates, while it appears that natural features peculiar to the conservation area contribute to the patchy pattern of distribution.     

Body scarring as an indicator of social function of dugong (Dugong dugon) tusks

The fully aquatic lifestyle of dugongs means that direct observation of social tusk use is not usually possible. This study used body scarring as an indicator of tusk function by males. Tusk rake scars on 298 live wild dugongs, of both sexes and all sizes, were categorized and counted in over 1,000 photographs, and examined in relation to maturity and reproductive activity over seasons. All dugongs had tusk scars, but adults were the main recipients. Sexually active adults acquired the greatest number of fresh tusk wounds during the mating season. Subadults received fresh rakes at similar numbers year-round. Adult males had more scars on the mid and posterior dorsum, indicating that males direct combative force to these regions of the male body when competing for females. Adult females had heaviest scarring and more tusk puncture wounds on the anterior-mid dorsum and head, suggesting that male dugongs use tusks in sexual coercion. Heavy scarring sustained by solitary calves compared to dependent ones, suggests that mothers afford some protection. Body scarring caused by tusks may serve as an indicator of reproductive contribution of the recipients, providing that successful males are involved in more reproductive competitions, and successful females in more mating events.     

Pair-specific usage of sleeping sites and their implications for social organization in a nocturnal Malagasy primate, the Milne Edwards' sportive lemur (Lepilemur edwardsi)

Safe sleeping sites may be a limited resource crucial for survival. In order to investigate their potential significance for social organization in nocturnal primates, we analyzed the spatial distribution of daily sleeping sites, their characteristics, their usage, and sleeping group compositions in the nocturnal Milne Edwards' sportive lemur during a 6-month field study in the dry deciduous forest of northwestern Madagascar. Sexes did not differ either in body size or in body mass. Sleeping sites were used almost exclusively by adult male-female pairs. Individuals showed a high sleeping-site fidelity limited to 2-3 different sleeping sites in close vicinity during the whole study period. Most females showed a higher fidelity to one distinct sleeping site than their male partners. Sleeping groups consisted of one adult male and one adult female and remained stable in composition over the whole study period. Exclusive pair-specific usage of sleeping sites suggests sleeping site related territoriality of male-female pairs, perhaps influenced by inter- and intrasexual resource competition. Results give first insights into the distribution patterns and social organization of this species. They imply dispersed monogamy for the Milne Edwards' sportive lemur, with sleeping sites as a potentially restricted and defendable resource.     

国土空间规划视角下健康城市规划评价指标体系构建

随着“健康中国”战略的持续推进,通过干预空间要素提升国民健康的城市规划受到了广泛的关注。在国土空间规划视角下建立了城市空间要素与健康关联性理论框架,从土地利用、交通环境、空间形态、蓝绿空间、食品环境、空间感知与突发公共卫生事件空间应对7个维度,提出了媒介性空间要素对居民生理、心理健康的五大影响路径,包括减少污染源和人体暴露风险、促进体力活动、促进健康饮食、促进社会交往以及提供可获得的健康设施。据此构建了“多要素、多维度、多尺度”健康城市规划评价指标体系,包含基础、新增和潜在指标。其中,“多要素”强调引入七大类空间要素构建全面而多样化的指标体系,“多维度”强调从传统的城市平面维度向立体空间转变,包含一维、二维和三维空间层面的评价指标,“多尺度”指构建“城市-社区-人”框架下的多尺度指标体系。结合各地实际,可从重视人本尺度、强化空间属性、引入突发公共卫生事件的空间应对以及三维指标的精准量化出发,制定有针对性的规划干预策略,并推动健康城市项目的发展完善,为“健康中国”战略在城市层面的推进提供参考。     

云南松（Pinus yunnanensis）林外生菌根真菌的时空分布

2000年至2005年,调查了滇中及其附近云南松林下外生菌根真菌的生态分布,共采集、鉴定标本834号,计有27科39属211种（含变种、变型）。结果表明,红菇属（Russula）、牛肝菌属（Boletus）、乳菇属（Lactarius）、乳牛肝菌属（Suillus）、口蘑属（Tricholoma）、鸡油菌属（Cantharellus）和革菌属（Thelephora）等为云南松林下的主要外生菌根菌类群。它们的发生与分布受到气候（如：气温和降水）、植被（如：林龄、林地郁闭度和草本植被）、地形特征（如：海拔、坡向和坡度）、土壤条件（如：pH值、地表腐殖质和枯枝落叶层等）和人为干扰（比如：商业化采集、林木采伐、火烧和地表物清理）诸多因素的影响。总结为如下：(1）5a的调查结果显示,云南松外生菌根菌的分布表现出季节性变化的规律;其中以每年1、2、3月份的物种多样性为最低,雨季期间急剧增加,至中夏和秋末达到顶峰,种类最为繁多。(2）在海拔1500～2100 m,云南松外生菌根菌种类随着海拔的升高而逐渐增加,至顶峰后,又呈缓慢下降趋势。海拔因素不但对其物种多样性,而且对于类群的组成也具有重要的影响。特定的类群往往发生在特定海拔范围。(3）随着云南松林龄的增加,外生菌根菌呈现由少至多的演替过程。外生菌根菌多样性随云南松林生长而逐渐增加的演替方式,可能与宿主光合作用产物、根部分泌物和土壤条件的逐渐变化有关。(4）人类干扰是云南松外生菌根菌物种多样性和类群组成的主要负影响因子。大规模的商业化采集可破坏或枯竭地下菌丝体,打破各物种之间的竞争平衡,减少孢子释放影响资源再生能力,进而直接影响到子实体的产生。外生菌根菌物种多样性的减少趋势会随林木砍伐和火烧强度的增加而加剧。地表枯枝落叶层与杂草密度也会影响子实体的产生,其中枯枝落叶层的厚度与云南松外生菌根菌子实体的发生呈负相关性,而被紫茎泽兰覆盖的云南松林地内也很少会发现相应的子实体。     

Ichthyoplankton distribution as an indicator of hydrodynamic conditions of a lagoon system in the Mexican Caribbean

The salt-water intrusion into a lagoon system of the Sian Ka’anBiosphere Reserve was assessed during 1 year and related tothe marine component of the larval fish assemblage. This systemis environmentally complex because of the penetration of marinewater, and the discharge of surface and subterranean water.Biological samples were collected during four field expeditionsfrom October 1996 to August 1997. Surface circular tows with500-µm-mesh conical plankton nets with a flowmeter weremade during the day. Position, depth, temperature and salinitywere recorded at each sampling station. All fish larvae wereremoved from the samples and identified to the lowest possibletaxon. Ichthyoplankton abundance was normalized to 100 m³ ofwater. The distribution patterns of the carangiid Oligoplitessaurus, the herring Opisthonema oglinum, the dragonet Diplogrammuspauciradiatus and members of the Tetraodontidae were relatedto the wind-driven circulation pattern of the lagoons obtainedusing a numerical model. The analysis of the distribution ofichthyoplankton showed that these species are good indicatorsof the spatial salinity variations controlled by the hydrodynamiccharacteristics of the system. The spatial use of these estuariesas a habitat for fish larvae is therefore strongly influencedby salinity distribution, itself modulated by annual variationof wind stress.     

基于社会感知的城市功能区人居环境愉悦度时空分析

人居环境愉悦度是特定环境下人类感受的定量表征指标,对优化城市人居环境有重要的指导意义。当前研究多使用社交媒体数据分析城市的发展和变化,忽略了城市环境和地理场所带来的居民心理感受影响。收集基于位置服务的微博数据和城市功能区数据,采用地理空间分析和数据挖掘方法,评价了北京市中心城区不同功能区的工作日和节假日人居环境愉悦度(2021年10月1日至24日)。主要结论：(1)人居环境愉悦度的时间趋势存在逐小时和假期-周末-工作日的规律变化。国家法定节假日和周末愉悦度最高,工作日明显降低;(2)人居环境愉悦度的空间分布存在差异,愉悦度高值区和低值区在空间上的分布离散,在工作日的表现更显著;(3)不同功能区之间人居环境愉悦度的时间分布存在差异。高密度商业区和休闲商务区多数时刻具有较高的愉悦度,文旅区和经济开发区在周末人居环境愉悦度较高,工作日中央商务区和自然景观区拥有较低的人居环境愉悦度。研究结果表明社交媒体数据在城市人居环境愉悦度研究中具有很大应用潜力,长时间序列和大空间范围数据挖掘是未来城市研究的发展趋势,对城市景观规划设计和人居环境优化具有重要的指导意义。     

Linear enamel hypoplasia as an indicator of physiological stress in great apes: reviewing the evidence in light of enamel growth variation

Physiological stress, such as malnutrition or illness, can disrupt normal enamel growth, resulting in linear enamel hypoplasias (LEHs). Although ecological factors may contribute to LEH expression, other factors, such as surface abrasion and enamel growth variables, are also likely to be involved. Attention to these other factors is necessary before we can begin to understand what LEH might signify in terms of ecological sources of physiological stress in non-human primates. This study focuses on assessing the contribution of these other factors to variation in LEH expression within and across great ape taxa. Here, we present LEH data from unabraded crown regions in samples of seven great ape species. We analyze these data with respect to lateral enamel formation time and the angles that striae of Retzius make with the enamel surface, as these variables are expected to affect variation in LEH expression. We find that although the duration of enamel formation is associated with sex differences in LEH expression, it is not clearly related to taxonomic variation in LEH expression, and does not explain the low frequency of LEH in mountain gorillas found in this and a previous study. Our data on striae of Retzius angles suggest that these influence LEH expression along the tooth crown and may contribute to the consistently high frequencies of LEH seen in Pongo in this and previous studies. We suggest that future work aimed at understanding species variation in these angles is crucial to evaluating taxonomic patterns of LEH expression in great apes.