Isolation and characterization of salt-sensitive mutants of a salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii

Abstract Twenty salt-sensitive (ss) mutants were isolated from the salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii by treatment with N -methyl- N '-nitro- N -nitrosoguanidine. The mutants were divided into five classes on the basis of their ability to grow in media containing various high concentrations of NaCl. The mutant with the greatest sensitivity to NaCl of all the mutants tested was able to grow very slowly with a longer lag phase in medium containing 2 M NaCl, in contrast to the wild strain which had the capacity to grow in medium containing 3.5 M NaCl. Most of the ss mutants exhibited, to some extent, less tolerance to high concentrations of glucose than the wild strain. It appeared from the characterization of the ss mutants that the following factors are necessary for growth of Z. rouxii in high concentrations of NaCl: (a) the ability to produce glycerol under these conditions; (b) the ability to maintain a defined concentration of glycerol within the cells; (c) the ability to take up glycerol that has leaked into the medium, and to assimilate glycerol; and (d) unknown factor(s).     

A transient and rapid activation of plasma-membrane ATPase during the initial stages of osmoregulation in the salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii

Abstract Effects of various inhibitors on the intracellular accumulation of glycerol and inorganic ions in a salt-tolerant yeast, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii , were examined for several hours during NaCl-induced salt stress. Cycloheximide strongly inhibited the intracellular accumulation of glycerol during salt stress but chloramphenicol did not. Rapid activation of plasma-membrane ATPase was apparent within 5 min after the start of salt stress and after 1 h a second, slower activation occurred. ATP was maintained at a higher level during salt stress than that in its absence. Experiments with various other inhibitors demonstrated a close relationship between synthesis of glycerol, activation of plasma membrane ATPase and increases in levels of ATP. These results suggest that activation by salt stress of plasma-membrane ATPase may trigger the synthesis of glycerol for osmoregulation.     

Intracellular levels of glycerol necessary for initiation of growth under salt-stressed conditions in a salt-tolerant yeast, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii

Abstract The relationship between the intracellular concentration of glycerol and the initiation of growth under salt-stressed conditions in the salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii was studied. The results demonstrated that the accumulation of a definite intracellular concentration of glycerol is required prior to the initiation of growth under NaCl-stressed conditions. The initiation of growth in 3 M and 3.5 M NaCl media started at low intracellular concentrations such as 0.51 and 1.17 mol/l cell volume. Similar results were obtained under KCl- and MgCl₂-stressed conditions. However, Z. rouxii was unable to grow under LiCl-stressed conditions, though it accumulated glycerol to the level required for the initiation of growth.     

Heterologous expression of Zygosaccharomyces rouxii glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (ZrGPD1) and glycerol dehydrogenase gene (ZrGCY1) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We examined the effects of heterologous expression of the open reading frames (ORF) of two genes on salt tolerance and glycerol production in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain deficient in glycerol synthesis (gpd1Deltagpd2Delta). When the ORF of the Zygosaccharomyces rouxii glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (ZrGPD1) was expressed under the control of the GAL10 promoter, salt tolerance and glycerol production increased; when the ORF of the glycerol dehydrogenase gene (ZrGCY1) was expressed under the control of the GAL1 promoter, no such changes were observed. Zrgcy1p had a weak effect on glycerol production. These results suggest that Zrgpd1p is the primary enzyme involved in Z. rouxii glycerol production, following a mechanism similar to that of S. cerevisiae (Gpd1p). When the ORFs of the S. cerevisiae glycerol 3-phosphatase gene (GPP2) and ZrGPD1 were simultaneously expressed, glycerol production increased, compared with that in yeast expressing only ZrGPD1.     

Effect of nystatin on the release of glycerol from salt-stressed cells of the salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii

The polyene antibiotic nystatin, which affects fungal membrane permeability, inhibited the growth of Zygosaccharomyces rouxii grown in medium containing 15% (w/v) NaCl, whereas yeast grown in medium without NaCl were only slightly inhibited. Nystatin caused salt-stressed cells to release large amounts of glycerol and inhibited their growth, but amino acids and materials with an absorbance at 260 nm were not released from the cells. The leakage was increased by the addition of glucose, and more than 90% of the intracellular glycerol was released into the medium during a 2-h incubation with 0.11 microM nystatin and 2% (w/v) glucose. Glycerol was indispensable for the growth of Z. rouxii grown in culture medium containing 15% NaCl.     

Accumulation of glycerol by the heterobasidiomycetous yeast Rhodosporidium sphaerocarpum in response to external hypertonicity due to NaCl

Abstract The heterobasidiomycetous yeast Rhodosporidium sphaerocarpum isolated from the Antarctic Ocean and a saltpan, showed marked tolerance to high concentrations of NaCl in the growth medium. This yeast accumulated glycerol as a major osmoregulator, as well as Na⁺ and Cl⁻, in response to changes in the concentration of NaCl in the external medium. The low levels of another cellular polyol, xylitol, did not respond to changes in the external medium.     

A procedure for enrichment and isolation of mutants of the salt-tolerant yeast Debaryomyces hansenii having altered glycerol metabolism

Abstract The salt-tolerant yeast Debaryomyces hansenii produces and accumulates glycerol when subjected to salt stress, whereby the buoyant density of the cells is changed. This property allows for enrichment of mutants with altered glycerol metabolism by density gradient centrifugation. Colonies derived from cells with rapidly changing density following an osmotic shock were screened for increased glycerol production by observing their ability to support growth of a glycerol-requiring strain of Escherichia coli . The glycerol overproducing phenotype of two isolates was confirmed by chemical analysis.     

Growth of the salt-tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii in microtiter plates: effects of NaCl,pH and temperature on growth and fusel alcohol production from branched-chain amino acids

Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, a salt-tolerant yeast isolated from the soy sauce process, produces fusel alcohols (isoamyl alcohol, active amyl alcohol and isobutyl alcohol) from branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine and valine, respectively) via the Ehrlich pathway. Using a high-throughput screening approach in microtiter plates, we have studied the effects of pH, temperature and salt concentration on growth of Z. rouxii and formation of fusel alcohols from branched-chain amino acids. Application of minor variations in pH (range 3-7) and NaCl concentrations (range 0-20%) per microtiter plate well allowed a rapid and detailed evaluation of fermentation conditions for optimal growth and metabolite production. Conditions yielding the highest cell densities were not optimal for fusel alcohol production. Maximal fusel alcohol production occurred at low pH (3.0-4.0) and low NaCl concentrations (0-4%) at 25 degrees C. At pH 4.0-6.0 and 0-18% NaCl, considerable amounts of alpha-keto acids, the deaminated products from the branched-chain amino acids, accumulated extracellularly. The highest cell densities were obtained in plates incubated at 30 degrees C. The results obtained under various incubation conditions with (deep-well) microtiter plates were validated in Erlenmeyer shake-flask cultures.     

Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis,a new ascosporogenous yeast from 'Kombucha tea'

A new ascosporogenous yeast, Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis sp. n. (type strain NRRL YB-4811, CBS 8849), is described; it was isolated from Kombucha tea, a popular fermented tea-based beverage. The four known strains of the new species have identical nucleotide sequences in domain D1/D2 of 26S rDNA. Phylogenetic analysis of D1/D2 and 18S rDNA sequences places Z. kombuchaensis near Zygosaccharomyces lentus. The two species are indistinguishable on standard physiological tests used for yeast identification, but can be recognized from differences in restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns obtained by digestion of 18S-ITS1 amplicons with the restriction enzymes DdeI and MboI.     

Regulation of intracellular osmotic pressure during the initial stages of salt stress in a salt-tolerant yeast, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii.

The accumulation of glycerol and inorganic ions as it related to osmotic pressure, and the regulation of intracellular osmotic pressure in a salt-tolerant yeast, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, were examined for several hours after salt stress. Intracellular contents of glycerol increased for up to 6 h in media supplemented with 1 M and 2 M NaCl and did not increase in medium containing 3 M NaCl. Intracellular contents of Na+ and Cl- reached a maximum value within 1 and 3 h, respectively, in all NaCl-containing media and increases were proportional to the concentration of NaCl in the medium. As glycerol was accumulated in cells, the intracellular contents of Na+ and Cl- gradually decreased in media containing 1 M and 2 M NaCl. After salt stress, cell volume decreased within 1 h and the original volume was re-established for 3 to 6 h in media with 1 M and 2 M NaCl but not in medium with 3 M NaCl. Intracellular concentrations of solutes, which were calculated from the total contents of glycerol and inorganic ions and the cell volume, became almost equivalent to the external osmotic pressure within 1 h after salt stress. Experiments using various inhibitors showed that a large amount of ATP was required not only for the synthesis and accumulation of glycerol but also for the exclusion of Na+ and Cl- from cells under salt-stressed conditions.     

石油降解菌HX-2耐盐机制及甜菜碱转运蛋白基因的研究

【背景】修复石油烃污染的高盐水体及土壤是具有挑战性的,因此探究石油烃降解菌株的耐盐机制尤为重要。【目的】对石油降解菌HX-2的耐盐机制及与耐盐性相关的基因进行研究。【方法】通过GC分析菌株HX-2在不同石油加入量及高盐条件下的烃降解情况;利用电导率仪及原子吸收光谱对细胞内离子含量进行分析;比较外源添加甜菜碱前后对胞外多糖(extracellular polysaccharide,EPS)及高盐土壤中石油降解情况的影响;最后对耐盐相关基因进行了qPCR分析研究。【结果】石油降解菌Rhodococcus sp. HX-2可以对10 000-100 000 mg/L的石油进行降解,3 d降解率均达到70%以上,并可在1%-10%NaCl存在下降解石油,在6%Na Cl浓度下仍有43.8%的降解率。对HX-2菌株耐盐机制的研究表明,细胞内阳离子浓度随着盐浓度的变化没有显著差异,而积累相容性物质甜菜碱并促进EPS的合成才是石油降解菌HX-2的耐盐机制。同时,扫描电镜结果表明,外源甜菜碱的添加通过刺激EPS的合成提高菌株的耐盐性。由HX-2菌株得到4种甜菜碱转运蛋白基因H0、H1、H3、H5和1种...     

Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis: the physiology of a new species related to the spoilage yeasts Zygosaccharomyces lentus and Zygosaccharomyces bailii

Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis was recently discovered in the 'tea fungus' used to make fermented tea. Z. kombuchaensis was shown by ribosomal DNA sequencing to be a novel species, and a close relative of Zygosaccharomyces lentus, from which it could not be distinguished by conventional physiological tests. Z. lentus was originally established as a new taxon by growth at 4 degrees C, sensitivity for heat and oxidative stress, and lack of growth in aerobic shaken culture at temperatures above 25 degrees C. Subsequent analysis of Z. kombuchaensis reveals that this species shares these unusual characteristics, confirming its close genealogical relationship to Z. lentus. Detailed physiological data from a number of Z. kombuchaensis and Z. lentus strains clearly demonstrate that these two species can in fact be distinguished from one another based on their differing resistance/sensitivity to the food preservatives benzoic acid and sorbic acid. The spoilage yeasts Zygosaccharomyces bailii and Z. lentus are resistant to both acetic acid and sorbic acid, whereas Z. kombuchaensis is resistant to acetic acid but sensitive to sorbic acid. This would indicate that Z. kombuchaensis strains lack the mechanism for resistance to sorbic acid, but possess the means of resistance to acetic acid. This observation would therefore suggest that these two resistance mechanisms are different, and that in all probability acetic and sorbic acids inhibit yeast growth by different modes of action. Z. kombuchaensis strains were also sensitive to benzoic acid, again suggesting inhibition dissimilar from that to acetic acid.     

Oxidative phosphorylation in yeast VIII. Osmotic and permeability properties of mitochondria isolated from wild-type yeast and from a respiration-deficient mutant

1. Close similarities between yeast and mammalian mitochondria were found with respect to (a) osmotic response in impermeable solutes, sorbitol and KCl, (b) substrate translocation, (c) properties of the adenine nucleotide translocation system. A separate transport system for succinate, distinct from the dicarboxylate translocator, may be present in yeast mitochondria.

2. Substrate translocation was found to be preserved in pro-mitochondria from anaerobically-grown cells and in mitochondria from a respiration-deficient mutant. Adenine nucleotide translocation was demonstrated not to be affected by the cytoplasmic mutation. Along with previous data of other investigators, these results allow a general conclusion that neither the presence of a functional respiratory chain nor mitochondrial protein synthesis are prerequisite for the proper assemblage of the translocation systems in the mitochondrial membrane and for determining its permeability characteristics.     

Zygocin,a secreted antifungal toxin of the yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii,and its effect on sensitive fungal cells

Zygocin, a protein toxin produced and secreted by a killer virus-infected strain of the osmotolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii, kills a great variety of human and phytopathogenic yeasts and filamentous fungi. Toxicity of the viral toxin is envisaged in a two-step receptor-mediated process in which the toxin interacts with cell surface receptors at the level of the cell wall and the plasma membrane. Zygocin receptors were isolated and partially purified from the yeast cell wall mannoprotein fraction and could be successfully used as biospecific ligand for efficient one-step purification of the 10-kDa protein toxin by receptor-mediated affinity chromatography. Evidence is presented that zygocin-treated yeast cells are rapidly killed by the toxin, and intensive propidium iodide staining of zygocin-treated cells indicated that the toxin is affecting cytoplasmic membrane function, most probably by lethal ion channel formation. The presented findings suggest that zygocin has potential as a novel antimycotic in combating fungal infections.     

Salt relations of Dunaliella. Transitional changes in glycerol content and oxygen exchange reactions on water stress

Changes in glycerol content are reported for Dunaliella tertiolecta over an 8 h period after a salt stress or dilution stress. Under the experimental conditions, the new glycerol level was reached in about 30 min in light or dark but there was evidence of oscillations after that, particularly on dilution stress. Glycerol disappearance on dilution stress is caused predominantly by dissimilation. A salt stress immediately inhibited photosynthetic oxygen evolution and caused net oxygen uptake for a period of about 36 h after the stress. Oxygen evolution was reestablished after that and the process of recovery to the point of resumption of net evolution was not affected by conditions designed to inhibit protein synthesis. Dilution stress of comparable magnitude diminished but did not eliminate photosynthetic oxygen evolution and recovery to a pre-stress level took about 18 h. Effects of HCO ₃ ^- concentration suggested that photorespiration was not the sole determinant of oxygen uptake induced by salt stress but it was not possible to apportion with confidence the contribution of mitochondrial and other types of respiration. There was no evidence that modification by stress of energy-induced proton fluxes across the plasma membrane constituted an osmoregulatory signal in either species.     

The yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii: a new host for heterologous protein production, secretion and for metabolic engineering applications

Molecular tools for the production of heterologous proteins and metabolic engineering applications of the non-conventional yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii were developed. The combination of Z. bailii's resistance to relatively high temperature, osmotic pressure and low pH values, with a high specific growth rate renders this yeast potentially interesting for exploitation for biotechnological purposes as well as for the understanding of the biological phenomena and mechanisms underlying the respective resistances. Looking forward to these potential applications, here we present the tools required for the production and the secretion of different heterologous proteins, and one example of a metabolic engineering application of this non-conventional yeast, employing the newly developed molecular tools.     

A chemically induced new pea (Pisum sativum) mutant SGECdt with increased tolerance to, and accumulation of, cadmium

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: To date, there are no crop mutants described in the literature that display both Cd accumulation and tolerance. In the present study a unique pea (Pisum sativum) mutant SGECd(t) with increased Cd tolerance and accumulation was isolated and characterized. METHODS: Ethylmethane sulfonate mutagenesis of the pea line SGE was used to obtain the mutant. Screening for Cd-tolerant seedlings in the M2 generation was performed using hydroponics in the presence of 6 microm CdCl2. Hybridological analysis was used to identify the inheritance of the mutant phenotype. Several physiological and biochemical characteristics of SGECd(t) were studied in hydroponic experiments in the presence of 3 microm CdCl2, and elemental analysis was conducted. KEY RESULTS: The mutant SGECd(t) was characterized as having a monogenic inheritance and a recessive phenotype. It showed increased Cd concentrations in roots and shoots but no obvious morphological defects, demonstrating its capability to cope well with increased Cd levels in its tissues. The enhanced Cd accumulation in the mutant was accompanied by maintenance of homeostasis of shoot Ca, Mg, Zn and Mn contents, and root Ca and Mg contents. Through the application of La(+3) and the exclusion of Ca from the nutrient solution, maintenance of nutrient homeostasis in Cd-stressed SGECd(t) was shown to contribute to the increased Cd tolerance. Control plants of the mutant (i.e. no Cd treatment) had elevated concentrations of glutathione (GSH) in the roots. Through measurements of chitinase and guaiacol-dependent peroxidase activities, as well as proline and non-protein thiol (NPT) levels, it was shown that there were lower levels of Cd stress both in roots and shoots of SGECd(t). Accumulation of phytochelatins [(PCcalculated) = (NPT)-(GSH)] could be excluded as a cause of the increased Cd tolerance in the mutant. CONCLUSIONS: The SGECd(t) mutant represents a novel and unique model to study adaptation of plants to toxic heavy metal concentrations.