Reproductive Performance of Sows Supplemented with Dietary L-carnitine over Three Reproductive Cycles

The effect of L-carnitine supplementation during pregnancy and lactation on the reproductive performance of sows was studied in two separate trials over three reproductive cycles. Both trials were identical in design and conduct but were performed with different animals. The trials comprised of a total of 127 sows (trial 1) and 100 sows (trial 2) which were divided into control and treatment groups. All animals were fed individually and received basic feed mixtures with low native carnitine concentrations. The rations of the sows in the treated group were supplemented with 125mg L-carnitine per head and day during pregnancy and 250mg L-carnitine per head and day during lactation. The animals of the control group received identical feed mixtures in identical amounts, but without the L-carnitine supplement. In the first trial, 212 litters were produced and evaluated for number and body weight of the animals, in the second trial, 173 litters were produced. L-carnitine supplementation significantly increased body weight gains of the sows between day 1 and day 85 of weaning. The number of born piglets, stillborn piglets and piglets fit for rearing was not influenced by dietary L-carnitine supplementation. However, L-carnitine supplementation significantly increased the weights of piglets and litters at birth, weight gains of litters during suckling and weights of litters at weaning. These effects of L-carnitine were seen in both trials; they were independent of the age of the sows and remained over three reproductive cycles in which the sows where continuously treated with L-carnitine. Overall, the study shows that dietary supplementation with L-carnitine during pregnancy and lactation improves the reproductive performance of sows over several reproductive cycles, independent of the age of the sows.     

Sows’ responses to increased heat load – A review

There is a comprehensive body of literature on how increased air temperature affects the physiology, production and behaviour of sows, while very few studies consider the thermal effects of air humidity and air velocity.This review summarises studies that have investigated effects of air temperature by reviewing published literature in which sows were exposed to at least two different levels of air temperature ranging from 15 °C to 39 °C. Increased rectal temperature was investigated in the majority of the studies (26) and on average, the rectal temperature increased by 0.099 °C per °C increased air temperature above 25 °C. The increase was smaller at lower air temperatures, and it was suggested that rectal temperature is practically unaffected by air temperatures in the range of 15 °C–21 °C. This review elucidates how air temperature also affects performance indicators such as respiration rate, vaginal temperature, skin temperature, feed intake, milk yield, body weight loss during lactation, mortality, litter daily weight gain during lactation and sow behaviour.One study reported how respiration rate, rectal temperature, vaginal temperature and skin temperature were affected by both air temperature and air humidity, and the results suggest that the relative significance of air temperature and humidity may be similar for sows and finishing pigs (e.g. an increase of 40% relative humidity at an air temperature of 30 °C has a similar effect as a 1.9 °C increase in temperature).Studies on mitigation methods against the effects of high temperature and humidity such as snout cooling, drip cooling and floor cooling were reviewed to extract knowledge related to the effects of air velocity, temperatures of surrounding surfaces and the opportunity for sows to moisten their skin.     

Nutrient composition and concentrations of immunoglobulins in milk of sows supplemented with L-carnitine

Recent studies have shown that L-carnitine supplementation of sows increases growth of their piglets during the suckling period. In this study, the composition of the milk of sows supplemented with L-carnitine was determined to find out whether an altered milk composition could account for the increased growth rates of the piglets. Milk of 13 control sows and 14 sows supplemented with L-carnitine (125 mg/d during pregnancy, 250 mg/d during lactation) was collected 5-8 h after birth (colostrum) and on days 10 and 20 of lactation. Concentrations of fat and lactose and the energy content in milk at day 10 and 20 did not differ between both groups of sows. Sows supplemented with L-carnitine had a higher concentration of protein in colostrum (p < 0.05) while concentrations of fat, lactose, immunoglobulins G, M and A as well as the energy content in colostrum did not differ between both groups of sows. These findings show that milk composition does not play a major role for the increased postnatal growth of piglets from sows supplemented with L-carnitine observed in recent studies.     

Effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate on bacteria profiles in the faeces of lactating sows and their suckling piglets

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) on the faecal bacteria composition of suckling piglets after supplementation of AKG to the diet of lactating sows. After farrowing, the sows were assigned to either a normal lactation diet (control group, n = 12) or a diet supplemented with 0.25% AKG (AKG group, n = 12) based on body weight (BW) and parity. During the 21-d suckling period, BW and diarrhoea occurrences of piglets were recorded daily, while faeces were sampled weekly from sows and piglets. The levels of pH, ammonia, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and lactate in the faeces of piglets were determined. In particular, bacteria profiles in faeces of sows and their suckling piglets were examined by Illumina sequencing. The results showed that the AKG diet altered the faecal bacteria composition in sows during the 21-d lactation period, leading to increases (p < 0.05) in the abundances of genera Prevotella, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides and Methanobrevibacter, but decreases (p < 0.05) in the abundances of genera Oscillospira and Dorea. AKG supplement to the sows during lactation indirectly enhanced (p < 0.05) bacterial richness and SCFA levels (especially, acetate) in the faeces of piglets during the 21-d suckling period. It is suggested that maternal AKG supplementation alters the composition of faecal bacteria in the sows, and increases the faecal bacteria richness and acetate levels in the piglets, which might be associated with an enhanced growth performance of piglets.     

Effect of radiant heat at the birth site in farrowing crates on hypothermia and behaviour in neonatal piglets

It has been documented that floor heating of the farrowing area in loose housed sows improves survival of piglets significantly. However, today, the majority of farrowing pens are designed with crating of sows and slatted floor at the birth site. The aim of this study was to investigate whether providing radiant heat at the birth site to new-born piglets in pens with crated sows reduced hypothermia, time to first milk intake and growth of the piglets during the 1^st week. Second parity Danish Landrace×Yorkshire sows (n=36) were randomly divided into two groups: Control (CG) and heat (HG). In the area behind the sow (zone 1), two radiant heat panels were mounted above the slatted floor in the HG. The farrowings were attended, and the heaters were turned on at birth of first piglet and turned off 12 h after. Birth time, time to leave zone 1, time to first contact with udder and time to first suckling were registered by direct observation. The piglet’s rectal temperature (RT) was measured 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240 min after birth and 12, 14 and 24 h after birth of first piglet. Piglets were weighed at birth, 24 and 48 h and 7 days after birth. Data were analysed in a mixed model in SAS. The drop in RT was lower in HG compared with CG (P=0.002), and the RT in HG remained higher than in CG from 30 to 240 min after birth (P<0.05), whereas no difference was found at 12 h after birth of first piglet (P=0.92). Piglets in HG stayed longer in zone 1 than those in CG (P=0.01), whereas time to reach udder (P=0.35) and to first suckling (P=0.56) did not differ. No difference in weight gain was found between piglets in HG and CG at 24 h (P=0.23), 48 h (P=0.28) and 7 days after birth (P=0.44). Birth weight had a positive effect on RT (P<0.001) and reduced time to leave zone 1 (P<0.01), reach udder (P<0.001) and time to first suckling (P<0.001). The results showed that radiant heating behind the sows reduced hypothermia in new-born piglets and indicate that providing heat during the first half hour after birth is important.     

Sows with high milk production had both a high feed intake and high body mobilization

Selection for increased litter size have generated hyper-prolific sows that nurses large litters, however limited knowledge is available regarding the connection between milk production, feed intake and body mobilization of these modern sows. The aim of the current study was to determine what characterized sows with high milk production and nursing large litters, differences between sows of different parities and effects of lactational performance on next reproductive cycle. In total 565 sows (parity 1 to 4) were studied from 7 days before farrowing until weaning. On day 2 postpartum litters were standardized to 14 piglets. Weight and back fat thickness of sows were measured at day 7 prepartum, day 2 postpartum and at weaning. Litters were weighed at day 2 and at weaning. Pearson correlation coefficients between variables were calculated and regression models were developed. The average daily feed intake (ADFI) of the sows was 6.1±1.1 kg/day, average daily gain (ADG) of the litter was 2.92±0.53 kg/day and sows weaned 13.0±1.1 piglets. First parity sows generally had a lower ADFI and milk production and a decrease in total born piglets in next litter compared with parity 2 to 4 sows, which could be explained by a relatively higher proportion of their body reserves being mobilized compared with multiparous sows. The ADG of the litter was positively related by ADFI of the sows, litter size and BW loss and increasing the ADFI with 1 kg/day throughout lactation likely increased the ADG of the litter with 220 to 440 g/day in parity 1 to 4, respectively. Increasing the ADFI by 1 kg/day reduced the BW loss with 6.6 to 13.9 kg of parity 1 to 4 sows, respectively, during lactation, whereas increasing the average milk yield with 1 kg/day raised the BW loss with 4.3 to 21.0 kg of the four parities during lactation. The number of total born piglets in the next litter was positively related to the number of piglets born in the previous litter. In conclusion, both a high feed intake and a high mobilization of body reserves was a prerequisite for a high milk production. The sows might be very close to the physical limit of what they can ingest and future research should therefore, focus on optimizing the dietary energy and nutrient concentrations of diets for lactating hyper-prolific sows and herein distinguish between primiparous and multiparous sows.     

Follicular development of sows at weaning in relation to estimated breeding value for within-litter variation in piglet birth weight

In this study we aimed to identify possible causes of within-litter variation in piglet birth weight (birth weight variation) by studying follicular development of sows at weaning in relation to their estimated breeding value (EBV) for birth weight variation. In total, 29 multiparous sows (parity 3 to 5) were selected on their EBV for birth weight variation (SD in grams; High-EBV: 15.8±1.6, N=14 and Low-EBV: −24.7±1.5, N=15). The two groups of sows had similar litter sizes (15.7 v. 16.9). Within 24 h after parturition, piglets were cross-fostered to ensure 13 suckling piglets per sow. Sows weaned 12.8±1.0 and 12.7±1.0 piglets, respectively, at days 26.1±0.2 of lactation. Blood and ovaries were collected within 2 h after weaning. The right ovary was immediately frozen to assess average follicle size and percentage healthy follicles of the 15 largest follicles. The left ovary was used to assess the percentage morphologically healthy cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) of the 15 largest follicles. To assess the metabolic state of the sows, body condition and the circulating metabolic markers insulin, IGF1, non-esterified fatty acid, creatinine, leptin, urea and fibroblast growth factor 21 were analysed at weaning. No significant differences were found in any of the measured follicular or metabolic parameters between High-EBV and Low-EBV. A higher weight loss during lactation was related to a lower percentage healthy COCs (β= −0.65, P=0.02). Serum creatinine, a marker for protein breakdown, was negatively related to average follicle size (β= −0.60, P=0.05). Backfat loss during lactation was related to a higher backfat thickness at parturition and to a higher average follicle size (β=0.36, P<0.001) at weaning. In conclusion, we hypothesise that modern hybrid sows with more backfat at the start of lactation are able to mobilise more energy from backfat during lactation and could thereby spare protein reserves to support follicular development.     

Effects of maternal alpha-ketoglutarate supplementation during lactation on the performance of lactating sows and suckling piglets

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to investigate if dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) supplementation may improve the performance of lactating sows and their suckling piglets. After farrowing, 24 lactating sows (Large White × Landrace) with similar body weight (BW) were assigned to the control and AKG groups based on parity, and their lactation diets were supplemented with 0.00 or 0.25% AKG, respectively. It was found that supplementing the diet of lactating sows with 0.25% AKG enhanced growth performance of the suckling piglets from d 7 to d 21 of the lactation period, improved villus height of ileum and tended (p = 0.085) to increase mean volumetric bone mineral density of femur in the weanling piglets. In the lactating sows, dietary supplementation of AKG decreased plasma urea level on d 14 of lactation, decreased plasma calcium (Ca) concentrations from d 7 to d 21 of lactation and increased lactose and Ca levels in ordinary milk. Thus, it was proposed that AKG supplementation stimulates the capacity for lactose synthesis and Ca uptake in the mammary gland, thereby altering the composition of the ordinary milk which might be associated with the enhanced performance of piglets during the suckling period. These findings could lead to a better application of AKG in lactating nutrition, and therefore, promoting pork production.     

Lack of stimulation of relaxin secretion in lactating sows by suckling in vivo or by oxytocin in vitro.

After parturition, eight sows were zero weaned by removing all piglets 6 h after birth; a further 18 sows suckled at least ten piglets each. Blood samples were collected on Day 4 after zero weaning or on Days 4, 14 and 21 of lactation and the sampling frequency increased during suckling bouts. Ovaries were recovered from sows on these days and corpora lutea were either extracted for estimation of relaxin and progesterone concentration, fixed for immunohistochemical analysis or incubated in vitro in the presence or absence of luteinizing hormone (LH) or oxytocin. Luteal weight and progesterone were higher in the zero-weaned sows than in lactating sows (P less than 0.05 and less than 0.001, respectively); relaxin content was below detection by Day 14. This was supported by immunohistochemical staining for relaxin, which showed limited immunostaining in zero-weaned and Day 4 sows, but none in the tissue recovered on Days 14 and 21, which showed typical signs of regression. Secretion of progesterone and relaxin by luteal tissue in vitro was highest in zero-weaned sows (P less than 0.05), decreased as lactation progressed and neither LH nor oxytocin had any significant effect. Concentrations of plasma relaxin were all less than 0.2 ng/ml in three of the four zero-weaned and Day-4-suckled sows assayed; there was no detectable increase during suckling bouts. It was concluded that during lactation the old corpus luteum of pregnancy is not able to release relaxin in response to suckling in vivo or to oxytocin treatment in vitro.     

Body weight loss during lactation and its influence on weaning-to-service interval and ovulation rate in Landrace and Yorkshire sows in the tropical environment of Thailand

The aim of this study was to investigate the ovulation rate and the weaning-to-service interval (WSI) of sows in relation to their body weight loss during lactation in tropical climatic conditions. Effect of lactation length (LL), number of total born piglets, number of live born piglets, litter birth weight, average piglet birth weight, number of pigs weaned, litter weaning weight and average pig weaned weight on sow weight loss during lactation were also studied. This study was conducted in two commercial purebred sow herds (A, B) in the central part of Thailand from August to December 1997. The herds had both Landrace (L) and Yorkshire (Y) sows. The 123 sows (55 L and 68 Y) in herd A and 153 sows (95 L and 58 Y) in herd B, parity 1-4, were weighed within 4 days after farrowing and at weaning. Lactation length, litter size at birth and at weaning, litter weight at birth and at weaning, and WSI were recorded for each of these sows. In herd A, 52 sows (20 L and 32 Y) were examined once by laparoscopy between days 8 and 14 after AI-service. These sows had farrowed at least seven piglets in the previous parturition. The numbers of corpora lutea (CL) in both ovaries were counted, and were assumed to equal the ovulation rate. L-sows had significantly (P < 0.05) higher relative weight loss during lactation (RWL) than Y-sows. The RWL increased by 0.7% for each extra pig weaned. When LL increased by 1 day, within the interval of 17-34 days, RWL decreased by 0.6%. Sows with a high weight loss had significantly (P < 0.05) longer WSI than sows with medium or low weight loss. Weight loss had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on WSI in parity 1 and 2 sows. Y-sows had more CL than L-sows (15.7 versus 14.0) (P < 0.05). RWL, parity and regression on lactation length had no significant effect on number of CL. In conclusion, sows with higher number of pigs weaned lose more weight. Under the restricted feeding regime applied, high weight loss during lactation prolongs WSI in parity 1 and 2 sows, but has no influence on the ovulation rate at first oestrus after weaning. The ovulation rate is higher in Yorkshire than in Landrace sows. The ovulation rate is independent of parity.     

Impact of feed restriction on the performance of highly prolific lactating sows and its effect on the subsequent lactation

A total of 50 mixed parity sows of a high-prolificacy genetic line were used to evaluate the impact of feed restriction during lactation on their production and reproductive performance and their performance in the subsequent lactation. From day 7 of lactation, sows were distributed according to a completely randomized experimental design into two treatments. In treatment 1, sows were fed 8.0 kg feed/day (control) and in treatment 2, sows were fed 4.0 kg/day. The same suckling pressure was maintained until weaning on day 28 of lactation. Average minimum and maximum temperatures measured during the experimental period were 32.1°C and 16.5°C, respectively. Control sows presented significantly higher feed intake (P<0.001) compared with the restricted sows (6.43 v. 4.14 kg/day, respectively). Treatments influenced BW and backfat thickness losses (P<0.001). Control sows lost less BW than the restricted-fed sows (7.8 v. 28.2 kg). Restricted-fed sows lost more backfat thickness than those in the control group (3.97 v. 2.07 mm; P<0.01). Restricted-fed sows tended (P<0.10) to be lighter at weaning compared with the control sows (211 v. 227 kg). The composition of BW loss was influenced by the treatments (P<0.001), as the restricted-fed sows lost more body protein, lipids and energy compared with the control sows (3.90 v. 0.98 kg, 11.78 v. 4.83 kg and 584 v. 224 MJ, respectively). Litter weight gain was greater (P<0.05) in control sows than in restricted-fed sows (2.70 v. 2.43 kg/day). Daily milk production was 19% higher (P<0.01) in the control sows compared with the restricted-fed sows (8.33 v. 6.99 kg/day). However, restricted-fed sows presented a higher (P<0.05) lactation efficiency than the sows of the control group (82.30% v. 72.93%). No differences were detected (P>0.10) in weaning-to-estrus interval and averaged 4.3 days. No effect of the treatment (P>0.10) was observed on any of the studied performance traits in the subsequent lactation, except for litter size at birth that tended (15.2 v. 14.1; P<0.10) to be lower for the restricted sows. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that feed restriction during lactation leads to intense catabolism of the body tissues of sows, negatively affecting their milk production, and the litter weight gain and possibly number of piglets born in the next litter. On the other hand, restricted-fed sows are more efficient, producing more milk per amount of feed intake.     

A Long Term Study on the Health Status and Performance of Sows on Different Feed Allowances during Late Pregnancy

Thirty nine pairs of full sibs were investigated over 6 parities in a long term study on the effects of late pregnancy feed allowance on the occurrence of agalactia post partum and on the performance of sows and piglets. A careful examination of all sows with a rectal temperature exceeding 39.5°C was performed by a veterinarian within the first 48 h after farrowing. Milk-samples were taken from sows with elevated rectal temperatures and showing clinical symptoms of agalactia. During the last 15 days of gestation the sows in the control group were fed 3.4 kg daily and the sows in the experimental group 1.0 kg daily of a commercial type of diet. In 26.6 % of the farrowings in the control group the sows were agalactic whereas the corresponding figure in the experimental group was 14.4%. On clinical examination udder changes were observed in a majority of the diseased sows in both groups. However, the agalactic sows in the control group were generally more affected, with lower water and feed consumption than in the experimental group. No effects of age of the sow (parity number) or length of the gestation period on the incidence of agalactia were demonstrated. The rectal temperature of agalactic sows was significantly higher than in the healthy sows already 1 day before farrowing. The agalactic sows farrowed a larger number of stillborn piglets, which indicates an early establishment of the disease. The number of weaned piglets at 6 weeks did not differ between agalactic and healthy animals. The interval from weaning to first oestrus was not influenced by agalactia in the preceding lactation.     

Dietary fibre for gestating sows: effects on parturition progress, behaviour, litter and sow performance

In pig production, parturition progress is a key event for sow's reproductive performance, evaluated by piglet survival and piglets' performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of feeding a high-fibre (HF) diet during gestation on parturition progress and reproductive performance of sows. Forty-two primiparous sows (Large-White × Landrace crossbred) were fed during gestation either a control diet (C diet; 2.40 kg/day, 3.2% crude fibre, in % of dry matter (DM)), or a HF diet (2.80 kg/day, 12.4% crude fibre, in % of DM). All sows received 33 MJ digestible energy per day. Continuous video recordings were done on the parturition day to determine postural changes (standing, sitting, lying) and behavioural activities (nesting behaviour, uterine contractions, restlessness, social behaviour towards piglets) during parturition. Duration of parturition and individual birth intervals were also measured. Piglets' growth was evaluated by weekly weighing from birth until weaning, at 26.5 days of age. Sows were weighed and backfat thickness was measured at mating, on day 105 of gestation, on the 1st day post partum, and at weaning. Durations of parturition and of birth intervals were not affected by the gestation diet and averaged 211 ± 12 min and 16.5 ± 0.9 min (mean ± s.e.), respectively. During the parturition progress, the gestation diet did not affect the frequency and the time devoted to postural and behavioural activities. Dietary treatment during gestation did not influence duration of gestation and weaning-to-oestrus interval, as well as litter size, and number of stillborn and weaned piglets. Piglet weight at birth did not differ between gestation dietary treatments but piglets nursed by HF sows showed a 13.5% greater growth rate during the 1st week of life (P < 0.01) and tended to be heavier at weaning (P = 0.06) compared with C piglets. The HF sows were leaner at the end of gestation (P < 0.05), but variations of sows' weight during gestation and lactation were not affected by the gestation diet. All sows lost the same amount of backfat thickness during lactation. During lactation, the average daily feed intake was not significantly affected by the gestation diet. This study shows that substituting a control diet for a HF diet during gestation has limited effects on farrowing progress and reproductive performance, but improved piglets' growth rate during the 1st week of life and tended to increase their live weight at weaning.     

Effect of oral polyamine supplementation pre-weaning on piglet growth and intestinal characteristics

A high proportion of piglets fail to adapt to the changing composition of their diet at weaning, resulting in weight loss and increased susceptibility to pathogens. Polyamines are present in sow milk and promote neonatal maturation of the gut. We hypothesised that oral spermine and spermidine supplementation before weaning would increase piglet growth and promote gastrointestinal development at weaning. In Experiment One, one pair of liveweight (LW)-matched piglets per litter from first and third lactation sows received 2 ml of a 0 (Control) or 463 nmol/ml spermine solution at 14, 16, 18, 20 and 22 days of age (n=6 piglets/treatment per parity). Villus height and crypt depth in the duodenum and jejunum were measured at weaning (day 23 postpartum). In Experiment Two, piglets suckling 18 first and 18 third lactation sows were used. Within each litter, piglets received 2 ml of either water (Control), 463 nmol/ml spermine solution or 2013 nmol/ml spermidine solution at 14, 16, 18, 22 and 24 days of age (n=54 piglets/treatment per sow parity). Piglets were weighed individually at 14, 18, 24 (weaning) and 61 days of age. In Experiment One, oral spermine supplementation resulted in a 41% increase in villus height, a 21% decrease in crypt depth and 79% decrease in the villus height : crypt depth ratio compared with control piglets (P<0.01). In Experiment Two, spermine and spermidine-supplemented piglets suckling first lactation sows grew faster (P<0.05) between days 14 and 18 postpartum than control piglets: 0.230±0.011 and 0.227±0.012 v. 0.183±0.012 kg/day, respectively. Spermine supplementation tended (P<0.1) to increase piglet LW gain from weaning to day 37 post-weaning compared with control piglets (0.373±0.009 v. 0.341±0.010 kg/day). In conclusion, spermine supplementation increased villus height at weaning, and appears to have the potential to improve the pre- and post-weaning growth of conventionally weaned piglets.     

Effects of meloxicam (Metacam®) on post-farrowing sow behaviour and piglet performance

Farrowing is an intrinsically risky process for both the sow and the piglets that can cause welfare and economic problems. The effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam on post-farrowing behaviour of sows, and the performance of piglets were investigated. A total of 48 sows were randomly allocated at the day of farrowing (day 0) into two homogeneous groups regarding parity, and treated with either meloxicam or saline solution as placebo. For each sow, number of position changes, total time lying and standing or sitting, feed intake and rectal temperature (RT) were recorded during 3 days after farrowing. Piglets were individually weighed at farrowing and at weaning. The number of position changes did not show significant differences between treatments (P = 0.79). Sows spent significantly less time lying during day +3 after farrowing in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (P = 0.04). Feed intake and RT showed a parity effect (P < 0.001 in both cases); however, no treatment effect was observed (P = 0.67 and P = 0.47, respectively). Pre-weaning mortality rate in piglets was not affected by treatment. In litters from multiparous sows, piglets of low birth weight (defined as percentile 15: BW <1180 g) had an average daily gain significantly higher in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (196.6 ± 7.2 v. 166.6 ± 9.1 g/day; P = 0.03). Although the administration of meloxicam 90 min after farrowing showed a positive effect on the total time lying of the sows, additional investigations are required to better qualify relevant indicators of pain following farrowing in sows and to specify the analgesic effects of meloxicam on piglet performance.     

Supplying sows energy on the expected day of farrowing improves farrowing kinetics and newborn piglet performance in the first 24 h after birth

The farrowing process is one of the most energy-demanding activities for the modern hyperprolific sow. This study evaluated the effects of supply of energy on the expected date of farrowing on the farrowing kinetics and piglets’ performance during the first 24 h after birth. A total of 80 sows were used. The sows and their respective litters were considered as the experimental unit. On the expected day of farrowing, the sows were allocated to one of the following groups: sows that did not have access to feed from farrowing induction until the end of the farrowing process (CON, n = 40); sows fed 500 g of energetic supplement, which consisted of 250 g of the basal lactation diet plus 250 g of cane sugar, 18 h after farrowing induction (SUP, n = 40). The farrowing duration, farrowing assistance, birth interval, number of total born, stillborn and mummified piglets were recorded for each sow. Piglets were weighed individually at birth and 24 h later. The interval from birth to first suckle was evaluated individually for each piglet in 16 randomly selected litters (eight litters per treatment group). Blood glucose concentrations of six sows were measured shortly after expulsion of the first piglet. Farrowing duration, farrowing assistance and stillborn rate tended to be greater (P = 0.06, P = 0.09 and P = 0.07, respectively) in sows from the CON group compared to sows from the SUP group. However, there was no difference (P > 0.05) between the groups for birth interval. Colostrum intake was greater (P < 0.05) for piglets from the SUP group compared to piglets from the CON group. Additionally, BW gain of the piglets suckling the SUP group was greater (P < 0.05) than those suckling the CON group at 24 h after birth. The blood glucose concentrations during the expulsive stage of farrowing were greater (P < 0.05) in the SUP group than for sows from the CON group. In conclusion, supplying modern hyperprolific sows energy on the expected day of farrowing is a valuable nutritional intervention to improve the farrowing kinetics and piglets’ performance in early life.     

Supplementing sow diets with palm oil during late gestation and lactation: effects on milk production,sow hormonal profiles and growth and development of her offspring

The supplementing of sow diets with lipids during pregnancy and lactation has been shown to reduce sow condition loss and improve piglet performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of supplemental palm oil (PO) on sow performance, plasma metabolites and hormones, milk profiles and pre-weaning piglet development. A commercial sow ration (C) or an experimental diet supplemented with 10% extra energy in the form of PO, were provided from day 90 of gestation until weaning (24 to 28 days postpartum) in two groups of eight multiparous sows. Gestation length of PO sows increased by 1 day (P<0.05). Maternal BW changes were similar throughout the trial, but loss of backfat during lactation was reduced in PO animals (C: −3.6±0.8 mm; PO: −0.1±0.8 mm; P<0.01). Milk fat was increased by PO supplementation (C day 3: 8.0±0.3% fat; PO day 3: 9.1±0.3% fat; C day 7: 7.8±0.5% fat; PO day 7: 9.9±0.5% fat; P<0.05) and hence milk energy yield of PO sows was also elevated (P<0.05). The proportion of saturated fatty acids was greater in colostrum from PO sows (C: 29.19±0.31 g/100 g of fat; PO: 30.77±0.36 g/100 g of fat; P<0.01). Blood samples taken on 105 days of gestation, within 24 h of farrowing, day 7 of lactation and at weaning (28±3 days post-farrowing) showed there were no differences in plasma concentrations of triacylglycerol, non-esterified fatty acids, insulin or IGF-1 throughout the trial. However, circulating plasma concentrations of both glucose and leptin were elevated during lactation in PO sows (P<0.05 and P<0.005, respectively) and thyroxine was greater at weaning in PO sows (P<0.05). Piglet weight and body composition were similar at birth, as were piglet growth rates throughout the pre-weaning period. A period of 7 days after birth, C piglets contained more body fat, as indicated by their lower fat-free mass per kg (C: 66.4±0.8 arbitrary units/kg; PO: 69.7±0.8 arbitrary unit/kg; P<0.01), but by day 14 of life this situation was reversed (C: 65.8±0.6 arbitrary units/kg; PO: 63.6±0.6 arbitrary units/kg; P<0.05). Following weaning, PO sows exhibited an increased ratio of male to female offspring at their subsequent farrowing (C: 1.0±0.3; PO: 2.2±0.2; P<0.05). We conclude that supplementation of sow diets with PO during late gestation and lactation appears to increase sow milk fat content and hence energy supply to piglets. Furthermore, elevated glucose concentrations in the sow during lactation may be suggestive of impaired glucose homoeostasis.     

Early piglet mortality in loose-housed sows related to sow and piglet behaviour and to the progress of parturition

The aim of the present study was to identify characteristics of sow behaviour and parturition related to early piglet mortality in loose-housed farrowing sows. Data from 152 farrowings that originated from three different herds with loose-housed sows during parturition were used. Graphical chain models were used to model the relationships between perinatal behaviour, periparturient individual conditions (time of day of parturition, rectal temperature 1–3 days postpartum) and causes of early piglet mortality. Modelling was based on the correlation between variables within herd and farrowing batch.The analysis showed that different causes of mortality were linked to different behavioural variables during the periparturient period and that they grouped into three independent categories. The first category was associated with stillbirth and death due to other causes. Stillbirth was positively related to the variation of the inter-birth interval and negatively related to the percentage of piglets that suckled during the first 8 h after birth of first piglet (BFP). Death due to other causes was negatively related to the suckling activity during the post-partal period (9–24 h after BFP). The second category was associated with piglet crushing, which was positively related to much lateral lying the last 4 h before BFP. Finally, the third category was associated with death due to lack of colostrums ingestion of colostrum, which was linked to the time of parturition and sow rectal temperature on days 1 and 2 after farrowing. Sows that gave birth during the morning compared to evening/night had more dead piglets due to lack of colostrums ingestion. Death due to lack of colostrums ingestion was also higher in sows with high rectal temperature on the day after BFP. The results further showed that litter size not only influenced mortality but also behavioural variables. High litter size was related to high nest building activity before BFP, low but more variable inter-birth intervals, and much lateral lying after BFP. The study points towards several areas of interest for further research that can help understand early piglet mortality. These include causes of variation in the progress of parturition, causes of individual differences in sow activity and responsiveness to piglets, and early management of farrowing. In addition, the study suggests possible indicators of problematic farrowings rendering liveborn piglets at risk. These include prepartum lateral lying in the sow, low suckling activity and rate of stillbirth.     

Oxytocin plasma level in the lactating sows--effect of suckling

Oxytocin concentration in the peripheral blood was measured by RIA during suckling period in lactating sows (n = 8). Blood samples were taken from the jugular vein around the clock for every 2 h on day 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and on day 35 of lactation. Besides that blood samples were collected more frequently during suckling periods. Oxytocin plasma concentration was very low and in most cases it was on a border of sensitivity of our method (3 pg/ml). Marked but short-lasting rise of oxytocin was observed only during a period of initial massage of the udders by the piglets. This rise observed in all studied pigs was higher (p less than 0.01) compared to the values before the massage on the onset of lactation only, and was 14.6 +/- 4.2 pg/ml and 6.4 +/- 1.2 pg/ml on day 5 and day 10 of lactation, respectively. In all other studied days in a few cases only suckling stimulated the release of oxytocin over its basic concentration. Mean values (+/- SEM) of oxytocin in blood samples collected during massage of udder on day 15, 20, 25, 30 and day 35 were 3.7 +/- 0.5, 4.2 +/- 0.8, 4.9 +/- 1.1, 3.2 +/- 0.4 and 3.0 +/- 0.6 pg/ml plasma, respectively. There was no relationship between the size of the litters and neither basic level of oxytocin nor its blood concentration during suckling (r = 0.13).     

LH pulsatile release patterns, follicular growth and function during repetitive periods of suckling and non-suckling in sows

This paper presents LH, estradiol, and cortisol in 12 sows that were separated from their piglets for 12h a day, beginning around 2w of lactation, until weaning (intermittent suckling, IS). To separate sows from their piglets, the sows either were moved to a different unit (total separation), or were only inhibited from suckling their piglets by a physical barrier (physical separation). Blood samples were frequently collected during 4.5 consecutive days. At the start of IS, four sows showed advanced follicle growth. In the eight remaining sows, total separation resulted in 4/4 sows ovulating, while physical separation resulted in 2/4 sows ovulating. Total and physical separation resulted in different LH secretion patterns. Total separation resulted in a lower amplitude of LH pulses than physical separation throughout the period of sampling (0.26 versus 0.53ng/ml; P<0.01), and seemed to result in an escape from inhibition of LH secretion during suckling. Similarly, sows that ovulated had a lower amplitude of LH pulses (0.30 versus 0.54ng/ml; P<0.05), and also showed a different effect of suckling on LH secretion than anovulatory sows. Total separation, in contrast to physical separation, consistently resulted in increased cortisol after separation (P<0.05). This contrast was not observed between ovulating and non-ovulating sows. We therefore conclude that IS results in an increased LH secretion. Inhibition of all contact between sows and piglets seems to result in a more sustained increase in LH secretion, which increases the chance of ovulation.